КАЗАНСКИЙ (ПРИВОЛЖСКИЙ) ФЕДЕРАЛЬНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ

ФИЛОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ ФАКУЛЬТЕТ

КАФЕДРА РОМАНО-ГЕРМАНСКОЙ ФИЛОЛОГИИ

PUNCTUATION 
IN CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH:
THEORY AND PRACTICE

ПУНКТУАЦИЯ 
В СОВРЕМЕННОМ 
АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ:
ТЕОРИЯ И ПРАКТИКА
УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКОЕ ПОСОБИЕ

КАЗАНЬ – 2012

УДК 373.167.1: 811.111
ББК 81.2 Англ-923
Р97

Печатается по решению 
Редакционно-издательского совета ФГАОУВПО
˝Казанский (Приволжский) федеральный университет˝

Редакционно-издательского совета филологического факультета
Протокол № 16 от 14 апреля 2011 г.

Заседания кафедры романо-германской филологии
Протокол № 7 от 4 февраля 2011 г.

Составители:
доц. Г.К.Гималетдинова, доц. Л.К.Халитова, асс. А.Р.Каюмова

Рецензенты:
доц. Е.Ю.Семушина
(Казанский (Приволжский) федеральный университет),
доц. В.А.Мендельсон
(Казанский филиал Нижегородского государственного университета 
им. Н.А. Добролюбова)

Р97	Punctuation in Contemporary English: Theory and practice = Пунктуация в современном английском языке: теория и практика: учебно-метод. пособ. / Казан. (Приволжск.) федер. ун-т; Филол. фак.; Каф. романо-герм. филол.; сост. Г.К.Гималетдинова, Л.К.Халитова, А.Р.Каюмова. – Казань, 2012. – 72 с.	

Учебно-методическое пособие дает представление о системе знаков пунктуации в современном английском языке. Теоретическая часть посвящена рассмотрению основных правил и норм пунктуационной системы. В практической части содержатся разнообразные упражнения, способствующие развитию умений и навыков правильного употребления знаков пунктуации, как при создании, так и при восприятии и адекватной интерпретации письменного текста. Пособие адресовано студентам-филологам, углубленно изучающим язык, а также будет интересно всем, кто стремится повысить знания в области пунктуации английского языка.

УДК 373.167.1: 811.111
ББК 81.2 Англ-923
© Филологический факультет
Казанского университета,2012

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ

Данное учебно-методическое пособие предназначено для студентов-филологов, углубленно изучающих английский язык, и может быть использовано при рассмотрении теоретических и практических вопросов пунктуации в рамках таких дисциплин, как «Практический курс английского языка», «Практическая грамматика английского языка», «Синтаксис английского языка», «Графическое оформление текста». Цель пособия – ознакомить студентов с пунктуационной системой и нормами употребления отдельных знаков пунктуации.
Пособие состоит из двух основных разделов и двух приложений.
В первом разделе «Правила пунктуации» (“Punctuation Rules”) приводятся основные знаки препинания современного английского языка и правила их употребления: точка (full stop/ period), вопросительный и восклицательный знаки (question and exclamation marks), запятая (comma), двоеточие (colon), точка с запятой (semicolon), апостроф (apostrophe), дефис (hyphen), тире (dash), скобки (parentheses/ round brackets) и кавычки (quotation marks). Все правила снабжены иллюстративными примерами.
Во втором разделе «Практическая часть» (“Practice Section”) внимание уделяется проверке понимания теоретического материала, изложенного в первом разделе пособия. Сюда включены упражнения на проверку понимания (“Comprehension Exercises”) и упражнения на повторение (“Revision Exercises”), стимулирующие дальнейшее совершенствование навыков письменного оформления текстов различных стилей и развитие языковой интуиции.

PART 1. PUNCTUATION RULES

CAPITAL LETTER

1. Capital letter or capitalisation should be used for the first letter of a sentence, including sentences enclosed in parentheses.
•	The Constitution provided that states be equally represented in the Senate, but that the House of Representatives be elected on the basis of population. (Slaves were counted as three-fifths of a person.)
Capitalisation of questions in a series is optional. Both of the following examples are correct.
•	Is the population a hundred? Two hundred? More? 
•	Is the population a hundred? two hundred? more?
Also optional is capitalisation of the first word in a complete sentence after a colon. Just be consistent throughout an essay.
•	One of my favorite novels is by Wilkie Collins: His novel The Woman in White is not just one of the most engaging and gripping Victorian novels I have ever read, it is one of the most engaging and gripping novels of all time. 
Capitalise the pronoun and the interjection O.
•	How, O ye gods, can I control this joy? 

2. Capital letter is used for proper names. They are names of 
- people: Mark, Anna;
- countries, towns, streets, etc.: Russia, Liverpool, High Street, Fifth Avenue, Mount Everest;
- nationalities and races: Spanish, French, Europeans, Asians;
- languages: Spanish, French; 
- religions: Christianity, Buddhism; 
- places: the University of Oxford; 
- events and periods: the French Revolution, the Renaissance;
- organizations: the Bank of England, the Admiralty; 
- political parties: the Labour Party; 
- trademarks: Coca-Cola, Nike, Ray-Ban;
- days: Monday, Sunday; 
- months: February, April;
- title: Queen Elizabeth, King George, Sergeant Martin.
Proper names shouldn’t be mixed with general terms. Proper Nouns – the West, a Westerner, the Republican Party, the Senior Class of Ivy College, Clifton Street, the Mississippi River, the Black Sea, thank God. General Terms – west of the river, a republican government, a member of the senior class, my street, the street, the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, in the sea, Mars is god of war. 
•	Most of William Shakespeare's plays were presented first at the Globe Theatre in London.
•	Jerusalem is considered a holy city by Jews, Christians, and Moslems.
•	Many Native American writers come from Texas and New Mexico.
•	The University of California has nine campuses.
The word university or other kinds of institutions are not capitalized when the reference is general rather than specific.
•	He was fortunate enough to be admitted to several universities.
One is to capitalise words designating a deity, and sacred books: the Messiah, our Maker, the Trinity, Yahweh, Allah, Buddha, Jesus, the Bible, and the Koran. 
Pronouns referring to God are usually capitalized.
•	From Him all blessings flow.
•	"Praise God from Whom all blessings flow."
Capitalise trade names. Trade names identify individual brands of certain products. When a trade name loses its association with a brand and comes to refer to a product in general, it is not capitalised. Refer to a dictionary for current usage when you are in doubt about a name.
•	Scotch tape
•	Bunsen burner
•	Xerox
•	Chevrolet	
Note: Nylon, thermos.
Capitalise personal titles when they precede proper names but generally not when they follow proper names or appear alone.
•	Professor Otto Osborne – Otto Osborne, a professor of English
•	Doctor Jane Covington – Jane Covington, a medical doctor
•	Senator Robert Dole – Robert Dole, senator from Kansas
•	the Reverend Ann Cole – Ann Cole, the minister
Note: Many writers capitalise a title denoting very high rank even when it follows a proper name or is used alone:
•	Lyndon Johnson, past President of the United States
•	the Chief Justice of the United States
Capitalise degrees after a name.
•	Jeffrey E. Tyndale, Ph.D., J.D.
Capitalise a term denoting kinship when it is used before a name, used as a name and when not preceded by a possessive pronoun or the word the.
•	After Father died, Mother carried on the business.
•	I asked Aunt Alice, and Uncle Tom, and Cousin Mary to come and stay with us.
•	After my father died, my mother carried on the business.
Note: Never capitalise brother, sister, and do not capitalize cousin if it is used without proper name.  
Capitalise historical events, periods, and monuments.
•	World War II, the Great Depression, Lincoln Memorial
Capitalise holidays, weekdays, and months.
•	Independence Day, Passover, Ramadan, Monday, January
Capitalise compass directions to refer to specific geographical areas. Do not capitalise compass directions when they are used generally.
•	the Northeast, Southerners
•	southern exposure, western life
Capitalise names of specific courses. Do not capitalise studies (other than languages) that do not name specific courses.
•	I registered for Sociology 101 and Chemistry 445.
•	I am taking English, sociology, and chemistry.

3. In all titles and subtitles of works, titles of films, plays, newspapers capitalise the first and all other words except articles (a, an, the), to in infinitives, and connecting words (prepositions and coordinating and subordinating conjunctions) of fewer than five letters. Capitalise these short words when they are the first or last word in a title or when they fall after colon or semicolon.
•	Pirates of the Caribbean
•	Management: A New Theory
•	The Addams Family Values
•	The Daily Telegraph
•	Adrian Mole: The Wilderness Years
Note: “The Times”, but the “Morning Star”.
Always capitalise the prefix or first word in a hyphenated word within a title. Capitalise the second word only if it is a noun or an adjective or is as important as the first word.
•	"Applying Stage Make-up" 
•	Through the Looking-Glass
•	The Pre-Raphaelites 

4. Use capital letter for abbreviations. 
The abbreviation B.C. ("before Christ") always follows a date, whereas A.D. (anno Domini, Latin for "year of the Lord") precedes a date:
•	in 273 B.C.
•	between A.D. 600-800

FULL STOP

The full stop (BrE) or the period (AmE) (.), the most common of the end punctuation marks, is the punctuation mark whose purpose is to separate complete thoughts, to signal the end of declarative or imperative sentences (as well as the question mark and the exclamation mark). It shouldn’t be used after headings on separate lines (run-in headings are often separated from text by a full stop), after running heads, after table titles, or after items in an enumerated, displayed list unless one or more of the items are complete sentences:
•	The purposes of this article are
I To evaluate the achievements in this branch of linguistics
II To show the future perspectives
•	We can define the requirements of the power converter as follows:
I Energy conversion should be high.
II Efficiency should be independent of laser wavelength. 

The full stop is used:
1. To terminate a sentence that makes a statement. The full stop at the end of a sentence denotes fall of tone, completeness of the thought, and a pause:
•	The voice dropped to a whisper.
•	Three hundred pounds.

2. With imperative sentences that have no sense of urgency or excitement attached.
•	Turn left at the traffic lights.
•	Bring me a cup of coffee and some cheese sandwiches.

3. Sometimes after an abbreviation.
•	Titles: Mr., Capt., Hon., Ms.
•	Degrees: B.A., Ph.D., M.D., B.Sc.
•	States: Calif., Tex., Ariz. (But not in postal abbreviations: CA, NY, TX).
•	Names of Political Entities: U.K., U.S.A.
•	Months: Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec. 
•	Names: T.S. Eliot, John F. Kennedy.
•	Other Uses: A.M., B.C., A.D., vol., St., Ave., 1 in. (but 6-in-wide).
Remember that a full stop is never repeated after an abbreviation.
•	I prefer the abbreviation Ms.
Generally, you don't need full stops with acronyms (pronounceable words, such as UNESCO, formed from the initial letters of a multiword title), with capital-letter abbreviations of technical terms, abbreviations of units of measure (except inch), or with abbreviated names of agencies and organizations.
•	ft
•	cm
•	CBS (Columbia Broadcasting Corporation)
•	NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
•	FM (Frequency Modification)
•	CIA (Central Intelligence Agency)
•	VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America) 

4. As the decimal point in figures, amounts of money, and in section numbers. This is usually read out as ‘point’.
•	Consequently, the teacher training faculty has shrunk by 25.5%. 
•	That costs $6.50.
•	This subject is discussed in section 1.2 of this paper.

5. To separate parts of email and web addresses. This is read out as ‘dot’.
•	www.google.ru
•	www.ksu.ru

6. To end figure captions whether or not they are sentences.
•	Figure 1. Concluded.
Note: Most English grammars do not usually include a series of periods/ suspension periods/ ellipsis (…) into the list of punctuation marks. Ellipsis (plural ellipses; from the Greek: "omission") is a mark or series of marks that usually indicate an intentional omission of a word or a phrase from the original text; for instance:
•	Original sentence: The ceremony honored three brilliant athletes from Germany who were visiting Russia.
•	Rewritten sentence: The ceremony honored three brilliant athletes … visiting Russia.
This method of leaving out a piece of information is appropriate for most general works and scholarly ones as well.
An ellipsis can also be used to indicate a pause in speech, an unfinished thought, or, at the end of a sentence, a trailing off into silence (aposiopesis):
•	I want these papers now. If I don’t get them …
The most common form of an ellipsis is a row of three periods or full stops (...) or precomposed triple-dot glyph (…). Forms encountered less often are: three asterisks (***), one em dash (—), and multiple en dashes (––). The triple-dot punctuation mark is also called a suspension point, points of ellipsis, periods of ellipsis, or colloquially, dot-dot-dot.

QUESTION MARK

The purpose of the question mark (?), which is also called ‘interrogation mark’, or ‘interrogation point’, is to terminate a direct question, whether the question is an independent sentence, a clause within a sentence, or a direct quotation. It is used:
1. To mark the end of a direct question to denote interrogation, request, surprise, rise or fall of tone, and a pause.
•	What are you talking about?
•	Will you kindly see that Mrs. Heron has this note?

2. To show doubt or to indicate uncertainty within a statement.
•	Socrates (470?-399 B.C.), the Greek philosopher and teacher, was condemned to death for his unpopular ideas.
Note: Don't use a question mark within parentheses to express sarcasm or irony. Express these attitudes through sentence structure and diction:
•	*Her friendly (?) criticism did not escape notice. (Correct: Her criticism, too rough to be genuinely friendly, did not escape notice.)

EXCLAMATION MARK

The exclamation mark (BrE) or the exclamation point (AmE) (!) is used:
1. At the end of a sentence in order to mark an expression of strong feeling, e.g. surprise, joy, anger, shock, etc. 
•	Poor Columbus! He is a minor character now, a walk-on in the middle of American history.

2. To indicate a loud sound: 
•	"Great guns!" he shouted in consternation.
•	“Never!” she cried.
Because the exclamation mark makes a special appeal to the reader, you should use it sparingly. If oh introduces an expression of strong feeling, put the exclamation point at the end of the expression.
•	Oh, this is unspeakable!
Never use more than one exclamation point after an exclamation in formal written English. In informal written English, you can use more than one exclamation mark (usually two), or an exclamation mark and a question mark.
•	“Your wife’s just given birth to triplets.”
“Triplets!?”

COMMA

The comma (,) is probably one of the most important punctuation marks, the most often used, and the most often used wrongly. To punctuate with commas correctly one should know not only the set of rules but also understand the material being punctuated. You are to remember that commas tell the reader when to pause, how to relate several ideas, and, consequently, affect the meaning.
As it has been already mentioned, the English punctuation is much less regulated and organized in comparison with the Russian. Particularly this peculiarity can be observed while studying the comma. However, this doesn’t mean that you can use commas whenever you want. There are cases when usage or absence of the comma is obligatory but sometimes the English punctuation rules admit usage of the comma but it is not necessary. That is why comma usage is in sometimes a question of personal writing style: some writers use commas liberally, while others prefer to use them sparingly. Most modern North American style guides recommend using fewer commas rather than more, so when faced with the option of using a comma or not, you should refrain.
In order to understand how to use commas effectively one should know when not to use them. There are instances when they should be avoided.
1. There are no commas between the subject and predicate, as they are closely connected, and demand no pause.
•	*Registering for our programs before January 10, will save thirty percent. (Correct: Registering for our programs before January 10 will save thirty percent.)

2. There are no commas between a verb and its object or its subject complement, or a preposition and its object.
•	*I will send you before Christmas, a photo of my cat. (Correct: I will send you before Christmas a photo of my cat.)
•	*He travelled around the Europe with, a rucksack, a tent and a camera. (Correct: He travelled around the Europe with a rucksack, a tent and a camera.)

3. The comma shouldn’t be used after a coordinating conjunction.
•	*Snow fell heavily on the tin roof but, the family paid no attention. (Correct: Snow fell heavily on the tin roof, but the family paid no attention.)

4. There are no commas to set off words and short phrases (especially introductory ones) that are not parenthetical or that are very slightly so.
•	*After breakfast, they usually go to the seaside. (Correct: After breakfast they usually go to the seaside.)

5. There are no commas to set off restrictive elements.
•	*The shops, in the central street, are more expensive than in the outskirts. (Correct: The shops in the central street are more expensive than in the outskirts.)

6. There are no commas before the first and after the last item in the series.
•	*You should practice your punches, kicks and kata, if you want to improve in the karate. (Correct: You should practice your punches, kicks and kata if you want to improve in the karate.)

7. You must not join two complete sentences with a comma:
•	*Tom speaks Japanese, Ann speaks French. (Correct: 1) Tom speaks Japanese but Ann speaks French. 2) Tom speaks Japanese, but Ann speaks French. You may use a comma to set off a contrasting phrase).
But it is possible to join three or more complete sentences with commas plus and or or.
The main functions of the comma are to separate and to enclose elements of a sentence. These four types of comma can be distinguished: the listing comma, the joining comma, the gapping comma, and bracketing comma.

Listing Comma
The listing comma should be used in a list (series) when three or more words, phrases or sentences are joined by conjunction and or or, so it is used as a kind of substitute for these words. Some writers omit the comma before the final item in the series if the item is preceded by a conjunction. This omission is acceptable if it does not cause any confusion. In informal writing there is a progressive tendency to discard the comma before the conjunction, except for clearness, as the writing grows less formal. In journalistic writing the comma is regularly omitted. To avoid possible misreading, however, it is a good idea not to omit this comma. But note that it is not usual in British English to put a comma before and or or (it seems reasonable, since the listing comma substitutes word and), though in American English it is regularly put there.
•	My favourite flowers are irises, tulips, and lilies. (BrE: My favourite flowers are irises, tulips and lilies.)
•	The Three Musketeers were Athos, Portos, and Aramis. (BrE: The Three Musketeers were Athos, Portos and Aramis.)
•	Tom speaks Japanese, Ann speaks French and I speak Russian.
•	To find the lab, go outside, turn left at the tree, walk about fifty yards, and turn right.
•	If you keep calm, take your time, concentrate and think ahead, then you’re likely to pass your test.
If a comma used in a list of modifiers which all modify the same thing, this time there will be no and (but such a comma could be replaced by and without destroying the sense). To test whether or not you might need a comma, see if the word and could logically fit in between them. When replacing the commas by and, the sense is unchanged, though the example is much clumsier:
•	Her long, dark, glossy hair fascinated me.
(Her long and dark and glossy hair fascinated me.)
•	I live in a large, old house.
(I live in a large and old house.)
Do not put a comma when the modifiers do not modify the same thing, this time there is not a list:
•	I was very pleased to try some Australian red wine.
*I was very pleased to try some Australian and red wine. (Australian modifies red wine, not just wine)
•	I live in a large brick house.
*I live in a large and brick house.
(Large modifies brick house, not just house)
Note: The use of a comma before and is usually optional even in American usage, and many writers choose to eliminate it, provided there is no danger of misunderstanding:
•	We bought scarves, mittens and sweaters before leaving for Iceland. (Comma is unnecessary before and)
•	We ate apples, plums, and strawberry and kiwi marmalade. (Comma is needed before and for clarity)

Joining Comma
The joining comma is quite similar to the listing comma. It is used to join two complete sentences (independent clauses), and it must be followed by a connecting word, for example, and, as, or, but, so, while and yet (unless the independent clauses are very short):
•	Standard therapy may be less expensive, but sometimes experimental treatments are worth the money.
•	You are to hand in your tests, or you will receive a mark of zero.
•	The sea in the morning was freezing but refreshing, but nobody would go in with me.
As it was pointed out earlier, two complete sentences cannot be joined with a comma unless one of these connecting words has been used. 
•	*I took some food out of fridge, then I began to make dinner. (Correct: I took some food out of fridge, and then I began to make dinner.)
•	*He suggested going to a play, we agreed to. (Correct: He suggested going to a play, so we agreed to.)
•	*The British are notoriously bad at learning foreign languages, the Dutch are famously good at it. (Correct: The British are notoriously bad at learning foreign languages, but the Dutch are famously good at it. Or The British are notoriously bad at learning foreign languages; the Dutch are famously good at it.)
This one of the commonest of all punctuation errors can be avoided easily if you follow the comma with one of the connecting words listed above, or if you replace the comma with a semicolon.
Note: Some connecting words, for example, however, therefore, hence, nevertheless, consequently, and thus in long sentences can be preceded by a semicolon:
•	This is one possible solution to the problem; however, there are others.
Note: One shouldn’t use a comma before and, or/ no if separate words (not groups of words) are joined:
•	I like pizza and hamburgers. (Compare: We stood waiting for an hour in the rain, and even so the bus went past without stopping.)
•	Hot or cold milk will suit me equally well. (Compare: Each child was covered with mud, or soaked to the skin.)
•	He neither smokes nor drinks.
The joining comma is always used before for, as, and since when their meaning is equal to because:
•	He didn’t go out, since he had no umbrella.

Gapping Comma
We use the gapping comma to show that one or more words have been left out when the missing words would repeat the words already used earlier in the same sentence:
•	Some Norwegians wanted to base their national language on the speech of the capital city; others, on the speech of the rural countryside.
The comma here shows that the words wanted to base their national language have been omitted.
Gapping commas are not always strictly necessary: you can leave them out if the sentence is perfectly clear without them:
•	Italy is famous for her composers and musicians, France for her chefs and philosophers, and Poland for her mathematicians and logicians.
Use your instinct: if a sentence seems clear without gapping commas, don’t use them; if you have doubts, put them in.

Bracketing Comma
The bracketing comma (isolating comma) is different from the other three types and is used to mark off a weak interruption of the sentence. It requires a partner (though one of them may not be written), which may be another comma or a colon, semicolon, period, question mark, or exclamation mark. It is important to know that since bracketing commas mark off the weak interruption, the words with a pair of bracketing commas can be removed from the sentence without destroying it. 
Bracketing commas can be used:
1. Before and after a non-defining relative clause (also called ‘a non-identifying clause’) or phrase that gives additional, but not essential, information about the noun it follows:
•	The Pennine Hills, which are very popular with walkers, are situated between Lancashire and Yorkshire.
•	This watch, which I was given for my birthday, keeps perfect time.
•	My father, who has recently retired, spends all day watching TV.
Without the clause, the main information of the sentence remains the same.
Note: Don't use commas before and after a defining clause (or ‘identifying’) that gives essential information about the noun it follows:
•	The hills that separate Lancashire from Yorkshire are called Pennines.
•	People who talk too much annoy me intensely.
•	I’d like to marry someone whose star sign is Sagittarius.
Without the clause, the meaning of the sentence is different:
•	The hills are called Pennines.
•	People annoy me intensely.
•	I’d like to marry someone.
Note: Usage of commas can influence the meaning of the sentence:
•	The schoolchildren who have their meals at school are well fed. (Some children eat at school – and these are well fed.)
•	The schoolchildren, who have their meals at school, are well fed. (All the children eat at school and are fed well.)
Note: Don’t use commas before that after all, everything and nothing:
•	There was nothing that she didn’t know.
•	Everything that he said is true.
Note: Commas are always used to bracket a sentence with which if this sentence gives additional information about the whole main sentence, but not only about the noun it follows:
•	When I have some free time, which is not often, I prefer reading fiction.
•	I have to talk to her, which I hate.

2. Before and after the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction, as well as a singular participle:
•	Defeated, the team left the rink.
•	He was sitting on the rock, looking at the dawn.
•	The majority voting against the proposal, it was not adopted.
•	The case being controversial, a committee was set up to consider it.

3. To separate an introductory word or phrase that applies to the whole sentence from the rest of the sentence:
•	As it happens, however, I never saw her again.
•	Oh, so that’s where it was.
•	Our school football team will win this match, that is certain.
•	Mr. Squirrel, it is said, is a millionaire. 

4. To separate interjections, yes/ no words functioning as interjections, and tag questions from the rest of the sentence:
•	Yes, we agree with your idea to visit Spain.
•	Well then, go on with your work.
•	It’s quite expensive, isn’t it?
•	You live in Bristol, right?

5. To separate a direct address:
•	Ann, can you open the window?
•	I do think, Paul, that you could work harder.

6. To separate an apposition:
•	Morris, the police superintendent, took charge of the case.

7. To write down conversation (direct speech). If there is a reporting clause (e.g. he said, exclaimed Ann) after the quotation, you put a comma before the second quotation mark:
•	“I think we should go to India while we have the opportunity,” argued Tom.
If the reporting clause comes within the quotation, you put a comma before the second quotation mark of the first part of the quotation, a comma at the end of the reporting clause, and start the second part of the quotation with a lower case (not a capital) letter:
•	“It tastes horrible,” said she, “but it’s supposed to be very good for you.”
If the second part of the quotation is a new sentence you put a full stop at the end of reporting clause, and start the second part of the quotation with a capital letter:
•	“You should go home,” she advised. “You’re looking really ill.”
If the reporting clause comes before the quotation, you put a comma at the end of the reporting clause, and full stop (or question or exclamation mark) at the end of the quotation:
•	John said, “Put them on the top shelf.”
Note: Sometimes instead of a comma at the end of the reporting clause a colon is used:
•	She stood up and shouted to the children: “It’s time to go home!”

8. Before a short quotation:
•	Benjamin Franklin said, “There never was a good war or a bad peace”.

9. The words however, thus, none the less, in addition, for example, in the end, further, therefore, finally, in short, besides, nevertheless, consequently, on the other hand, etc. can be separated from the rest of the sentence if they are of special semantic importance and form a separate intonation group:
•	On the other hand, he could be right.

10. The adverbs or adverbial phrases can be pronounced as separate intonation groups if they serve to clarify, restrict, or comment on the information given in a sentence, so they are separated from the rest of the sentence:
•	Send this letter, please, immediately.
•	Silently, David squeezed in.
•	The play ended, happily. (Compare: The play ended happily.)

COLON

The colon (:) is used to show that what follows it is an explanation of what precedes it:
•	She was sure of one thing: she was not going to be an office cleaner. 
•	Mae West had one golden rule for handling men: "Tell the pretty ones they're smart and tell the smart ones they're pretty." 
What follows the colon can be a list of words – typically of more than three items.
•	For their anniversary they went to the following places: Los Angeles, Las Vegas, and San Francisco.
•	To make Greek salad you need the following ingredients: lettuce, cucumbers, tomatoes, onions, olives, and feta.
But note carefully: a colon is usually preceded by a complete sentence. Its purpose might be to introduce the clause that follows, so it might feel rather incomplete by itself, but grammatically it will have both a subject and a predicate. In other words, do not use a colon in situations like the following:
•	Her recipes included gingerbread, mincemeat fruitcake, and apple pie.
•	Santa's reindeer are Dasher, Dancer, Prancer, Vixen, Comet, Cupid, Donder, and Blitzen. 
•	For their anniversary they went to Los Angeles, Las Vegas, and San Francisco.
•	To make Greek salad you need lettuce, cucumbers, tomatoes, onions, olives, and feta.
You may use semi-colons or commas in between each listed item. Two spaces follow the colon and then one space after each semi-colon.
•	The following issues have not dominated the federal policy agenda:  day care; a national education system; women’s health; child poverty.
•	Notice in the above example that each verb is in the same tense:  create, prepare, supervise, meet, discipline.
Sometimes you can bullet the long list of items.
•	On a typical day, a primary teacher has to perform the following responsibilities:
• create a curriculum;
• prepare resource materials;
• supervise recess;
• meet with concerned and/ or interested parents;
• discipline unruly children…
Note: Very occasionally, the colon construction is turned round: 
•	Dasher, Dancer, Prancer, Vixen, Comet, Cupid, Donder, and Blitzen: all these are raised at the North Pole by Santa and his helpers.

The colon has several minor uses.
1) When you cite the name of a book or a film which has both a title and a subtitle, you should separate the two with a colon: 
•	I recommend Jessamyn Neuhaus's book Manly Meals and Mom's Home Cooking: Cookbooks and Gender in Modern America.

2) You should use a colon in quoting passages from the Bible:
•	The story of Menahem is found in II Kings 15:1422.

3) The colon is used in writing ratios:
•	Among students of French, women outnumber men by more than 4:1. (four to one)

4) A colon is used to separate the hours from the minutes in giving a time of day in American English (British English uses a full stop for this purpose):
•	9:30 a.m. Your Bottom Line: We show you how to save, protect and build your money in troubled economic times! (CNN)
•	12.10–2.10 pm Formula 1 – Abu Dhabi Grand Prix Qualifying (BBC ONE)

5) In the US greetings in business letters can be followed by a colon.
•	Dear Sir: 
•	Dear Ms. Hathaway:

6) Colons may introduce quotations that are formal or lengthy.
•	Orwell said: "All art is propaganda…"
Most of the punctuation guides recommend using a capital letter at the beginning of an independent clause that comes after a colon when (a) you have more than one sentence in your explanation, (b) your sentence is a formal quotation, (c) your clause is the real business of the sentence or the rule.
•	There were two reasons for a drop in attendance at NBA games this season: First, there was no superstar to take the place of Michael Jordan. Second, fans were disillusioned about the misbehavior of several prominent players.
•	Agatha Christie had this to say about marriage: "An archaeologist is the best husband a woman can have. The older she gets, the more interested he is in her."
•	Remember: Many of the prominent families of this New England state were slaveholders prior to 1850.

SEMICOLON

The semicolon (;) has only one major use. It is used to join two complete sentences into a single written sentence when all of the following conditions are met:
1. The two sentences are too closely related to be separated by a full stop.
2. There is no connecting word which would require a comma, such as and or but.
3. The special conditions requiring a colon are absent (i.e. what follows the semicolon is not an explanation of what precedes it).
•	It was the best of times; it was the worst of times. (Dickens)
Note: The semicolon can always, in principle, be replaced either by a full stop or by the word and (possibly preceded by a joining comma). But certain connecting words as a rule require a preceding semicolon. These are: accordingly, after all, anyway, also, besides, consequently, finally, for example, furthermore, hence, however, in contrast, incidentally, indeed, in fact, instead, meanwhile, moreover, namely, nevertheless, nonetheless, now, on the other hand, otherwise, similarly, still, therefore, thus, and undoubtedly:
•	Saturn was long thought to be the only ringed planet; however, this is now known not to be the case. 
Note: The semicolon can be used between items in a series containing internal punctuation, especially parenthetic commas, where the semicolons function as serial commas:
•	I saw three ladies: Clara, who came from New York; Kim, the surgeon's daughter; and Sally, the nurse.
The semicolon must be both preceded by a complete sentence and followed by a complete sentence. Do not use the semicolon otherwise:
•	*I don't like him; not at all. (Correct: I don't like him, not at all.)
•	*In 2009 the music world was shaken by a tragic event; the death of Michael Jackson. (Correct: In 2009 the music world was shaken by a tragic event: the death of Michael Jackson.)
According to R.L.Trask, “there is one special circumstance in which a semicolon may be used to separate sequences which are not complete sentences. This occurs when a sentence has become so long and so full of commas that the reader can hardly be expected to follow it without some special marking” [Trask 1997: 44]. In this case, semicolons are used instead of commas to mark the most important breaks in the sentence:
•	In Somalia, where the civil war still rages, western aid workers, in spite of frantic efforts, are unable to operate, and the people, starving, terrified and desperate, are flooding into neighbouring Ethiopia.
The number of commas in this sentence is somewhat alarming, says R.L.Trask. In such a case, the comma marking the major break in the sentence may be replaced by a semicolon:
•	In Somalia, where the civil war still rages, western aid workers, in spite of frantic efforts, are unable to operate; and the people, starving, terrified and desperate, are flooding into neighbouring Ethiopia.
Such semicolons shouldn’t be used too often. If the sentence is dangerously long and full of commas, rewrite it:
•	In Somalia, where the civil war still rages, western aid workers, in spite of frantic efforts, are unable to operate. Meanwhile the people, starving, terrified and desperate, are flooding into neighbouring Ethiopia.

Colon and Semicolon Compared
Consider the following two sentences:
•	Lisa is upset. Gus is having a nervous breakdown.
The use of two separate sentences suggests that there is no particular connection between these two facts.
Now see what happens when a semicolon is used:
•	Lisa is upset; Gus is having a nervous breakdown.
The semicolon suggests that the two statements are interrelated in some way. Probably, the cause of Lisa's annoyance and the cause of Gus's nervous breakdown are the same, for example, building noise next door.
Now try it with a colon:
•	Lisa is upset: Gus is having a nervous breakdown.
The colon clearly shows that Lisa is upset because Gus is having a nervous breakdown.

APOSTROPHE

English and American manuals usually include apostrophe (as well as hyphen) to the list of punctuation marks but that is a questionable point of view. These marks can be defined as additional ones in orthography but not for purposes of punctuation. 
The apostrophe is used:
1. For missing letters, often with abbreviations
•	r-‘n’-r (= rock’n’roll)
•	t’ment (= tournament)

2. For possessives
•	Tom and Nick’s toys
The apostrophe is a punctuation mark which signals the omission of letters or numbers, or express a grammatical contrast (chiefly, in English, the genitive construction, as in the boy’s car vs. the boys’ car). There is considerable uncertainty surrounding certain uses of the apostrophe in modern English, with forms such as the 1860s and the 1860’s or St Pauls and St Paul’s being used variously by publishing houses and other institutions. The contemporary trend is towards simplification with the apostrophe tending to be omitted when it is optional. There is some evidence to suggest that incorrect usage is increasing – both in errors of omission (when it should be present, as in The girls hat) and in errors of addition (when it should be absent, as in I saw the cat’s) – and expressions of popular concern have increased correspondingly. However, it should be noted that the rules governing the use of the apostrophe are of relatively of recent origin, having been largely devised by grammarians and printers only in the mid-19th century. The validity of some of these rules was disputed not long after their formulation and it is not too surprising, therefore, that we should be left a century later with a legacy of unease and that many adults as well as children should find the use of the form difficult.

HYPHEN

The hyphen (-) is a small bar found on every keyboard. It has several uses. Some linguists claim that the hyphen, as well as the apostrophe, is used in English purely for orthographic purposes and therefore cannot be referred to as a punctuation mark [Кобрина 1961: 12]. But traditionally the hyphen is mentioned when the questions of punctuation rules are discussed. The main rules that regulate the use of this mark are the following:
1. The hyphen is used to indicate that a long word was broken off at the end of a line:
•	We were dismayed at having to listen to these utterly inconse-
quential remarks. 
Most of punctuation guides recommend avoiding such word splitting whenever possible.

2. The hyphen is used in writing compound words which, without the hyphen, would be hard to read or overly long. Here, there is some room for individual taste; nevertheless, certain principles may be identified. These are:
1) Strive for clarity; 
2) Don't use a hyphen unless it's necessary; 
3) Consult a good dictionary.
Land owners, land-owners or landowners? Which is correct? All are possible.
A word like emeraldgreen is hard on the eye; if you refer to a good dictionary, you will find out that the established usage is emerald green or emerald-green.
Remember that usage may vary. If a word becomes more widely used, the hyphen can be dropped.
The hyphen is regularly used in writing so-called "double-barrelled" names: Jean-Paul Gaultier, Claude Lévi-Strauss. However, some owners of such names prefer to omit the hyphen: Jean Paul Sartre, Hillary Rodham Clinton. You should always respect the usage of the owner of the name.

3. It is necessary to hyphenate compound modifiers. Compare the following:
•	She gave him a good-night kiss.
•	*She gave him a good night kiss.
The hyphen in the first example is necessary to show that good-night is a single compound modifier. Without the hyphen, the reader might easily be misled: are there good "night kisses" and bad "night kisses"?
Here is one more example:
•	The guard captured five foot-soldiers.
•	*The guard captured five foot soldiers.
Here the reader might be momentarily confused as well if the compound modifier is written without a hyphen: is it five-foot soldiers, or five foot-soldiers? 
Hyphens connect the words of a compound modifier that comes before the word being modified.
•	Her dress is light green. She's wearing a light-green dress.
•	This essay is well thought out. This is a well-thought-out essay.
•	Her son is ten years old. She has a ten-year-old son.
•	That man is well respected. He is a well-respected man.

4. The hyphen is often used with prefixes, though the latter often present special problems.
•	She's repainting the lounge. (Correct)
•	She's reliving her childhood. (Hard to read, should be rewritten as re-living)
•	I resent your message [= Your message made me angry]
•	I re-sent your message [= I send the message once again]
•	She recovered the sofa [= She got the sofa back]
•	She re-covered the sofa [= She put a new cover on the sofa]
According to R.L.Trask, there are three cases in which a hyphen is absolutely required after a prefix:
1) If a capital letter or a numeral follows: non-EC countries, pre-Newtonian physics, anti-French feeling, post-Napoleonic Europe, pre-1500 English literature. 
2) If the prefix is added to a word which already contains a hyphen: non-bribe-taking politicians, non-stress-timed languages, an un-re-elected politician, etc.
3) If the prefix is added to a compound word containing a white space. In this case, the white space itself must be replaced by a hyphen to prevent the prefixed word from becoming unreadable: 
•	seal killing but anti-seal-killing campaigners;
•	twentieth century but pre-twentieth-century music.
In any case, the anti-seal-killing campaigners can easily be replaced by campaigners against seal-killing, which is much better [Trask 1997: 66].
Patricia O'Conner provides the following examples where a hyphen must always be used [O'Conner 2003: 145-146]:
1) With ex- (meaning "former"): ex-president of the company. 
2) When adding a beginning or an ending to a word that starts with a capital: anti-British, Trollope-like. Two exceptions are Christlike and Antichrist. 
3) When adding like: shell-like.
4) When adding a beginning or ending would create a double vowel: ultra-average, anti-isolationist. But pre and re are often exceptions to this: preempt, reexamine, so when you have a duplicate vowel, check the word in the dictionary.
5) With fractions: Three-quarters of the brownies and two-thirds of the cookies are gone.
The hyphen may also be used in representing ranges of numbers, and occasionally also other ranges. Printed books use a special symbol for this, the en dash (–).

DASH

In formal writing the dash (—) are used quite sparingly. 
1. A pair of dashes separates a strong interruption from the rest of the sentence, which violently disturbs the flow of speech. To be effective, dashes, like exclamation points, should not be overused. Here is an example: 
•	An honest businessman — if such a creature exists — would never agree to such a project.
If the strong interruption comes at the end of the sentence, then only one dash is used: 
•	There was no other way — or was there?
If the original sentence is never resumed after the interruption, only one dash is used as well: 
•	John, do you suppose you could — oh, never mind; I'll do it.

2. There are rare cases in which a sentence is broken off abruptly without being completed:
•	General Sedgwick's last words to his worried staff were "Don't worry, boys; they couldn't hit an elephant at this dist— ".
In this case, the dash is always written solid next to the unfinished piece of a word.
Note: If the sentence merely tails off into silence, we normally use a series of periods (an ellipsis). However, nowadays editors prefer dashes:
•	"'But, George —' she gave him a pleading look."
Such broken sentences are commonly found in representations of conversation in fiction; however, they are inappropriate in formal writing.

3. Most of punctuation guides recommend using the dash carefully since overuse of dashes will give your writing a breathless and disjointed appearance. However in informal writing, dashes may replace commas, semicolons, colons, and parentheses:
•	INFORMAL: I need four items at the store — tuna, mayo, eggs, and Swiss cheese. My agreement with Fiona is clear — she teaches me French and I teach her German. (A colon would be used here in formal writing.)
•	INFORMAL: I pay the bills — she has all the fun. (A semicolon would be used here in formal writing.)
•	INFORMAL: Please call my assistant—Laura Mitchell—about making travel arrangements. (Parentheses or commas would be used here in formal writing.)
Note: To form a regular dash on most PCs, type the first word, then hold down the ALT key while typing 0151 on the numerical pad on the right side of your keyboard. Then type the second word. You may also form a dash by typing the first word, hitting the hyphen key twice, and then typing the second word. Your program will turn the two hyphens into a dash for you. Some writers use two consecutive hyphens (--) to represent a dash.
Note: There are two slightly different conventions for using a dash in British English: to put white spaces at both ends of a dash (modern BrE) and not to put white spaces at both ends of a dash (older BrE). Both conventions are in use. In American English dashes aren’t surrounded by spaces:
•	The Serbs want peace — or so they say. 
•	The Serbs want peace—or so they say.

Some punctuation guides distinguish two types of dashes: an em dash (i.e. a regular dash) and en dash.
An en dash (–) is a little horizontal bar which is a little bit longer than a hyphen (-) but shorter than a regular dash (—). There is one basic use of an en dash. It is used to show numerical or some other ranges, signifying “from…to” or “between…and”: January–June, the years 2001–2003, pages 7–22; a high school–college conference, North Carolina–Virginia border.
•	*She was living in Rome from 1977–83. (Correct: She was living in Rome from 1977 to 1983.)
Note: To form an en dash with most PCs, type the first number or word, then hold down the ALT key while typing 0150 on the numerical pad on the right side of your keyboard. Then type the second number or word. You may also form an en dash by holding down Ctrl on the left side of your keyboard while pressing ‘minus’ key on the numerical pad on the right side of your keyboard. Your program will form an en dash for you.
Two adjacent em dashes used to indicate missing letters in oaths. For example, genteel Victorian novelists often wrote d——n in place of damn, and even Go to the d——l! instead of Go to the devil! Such usages are old-fashioned.
Three adjacent em dashes are used to substitute for the author’s name when a repeated series of works are presented in a bibliography, as well as to indicate an entire missing word in the text. Some Victorians, not wanting to set their fictional narratives in any particular location, also wrote things like At the time, I was living at B——— in the county of S———. This quaint usage is now dead.

PARENTHESES

Parentheses (( )), also called ‘round brackets’, ‘curved brackets’, ‘oval brackets’, always occur in pairs.
1. A pair of parentheses is used to set off a strong or weak interruption, rather like a pair of dashes or a pair of bracketing commas. In the case of a strong interruption, very often it is possible to use either dashes or parentheses:
•	The destruction of Guernica – and there is no doubt that the destruction was deliberate – horrified the world. 
•	The destruction of Guernica (and there is no doubt that the destruction was deliberate) horrified the world. 
However, it is preferable to use parentheses, rather than dashes or bracketing commas, to set off material which is not essential to the meaning of the text: 
•	The Basque language is not (as the old legend has it) exceedingly difficult to learn.

2. Frequently a pair of parentheses is used to set off an interruption which merely provides additional information, for example, an alternative spelling of the name, the birth and death dates of the person, etc.
•	The name of Argentina is derived from the Latin argentum (silver).
•	Diego Rodriíguez de Silva y Velázquez (or Velásquez) was a Spanish painter who was the leading artist in the court of King Philip IV. 
•	Diana, Princess of Wales (1 July 1961 – 31 August 1997) was a member of the British royal family and an international personality of the late 20th century. 
In all these examples, neither dashes nor bracketing commas would be possible.
It is possible to put an entire sentence into parentheses, or even a series of sentences. Note that a sentence in parentheses is capitalized and punctuated in the normal fashion. 
•	We saw Brown Pelicans (Have you ever seen one?) along the shore there. 
•	During our trip to Texas (It is a big state!) we visited Houston, San Antonio, and Dallas. 
Both examples below are correct:
•	Please read the analysis (I enclosed it as Attachment A.).
•	Please read the analysis. (I enclosed it as Attachment A.) 
Most of punctuation guides warn against overusing parentheses. There’s no point in trying to stuff one entire sentence inside another: 
•	*The first-ever international cricket match (very few cricket fans are aware of this) was played between Canada and the United States in 1844. 
This sentence was neither planned nor polished. If you find your sentence overcrowded, rewrite it.
•	Very few cricket fans are aware that the first-ever international cricket match was played between Canada and the United States in 1844. 

3. Parentheses may also be used to represent options: 
•	The referees who decide whether an abstract should be accepted will not know the name(s) of the author(s). 
•	The (French) horn is an unusually difficult instrument to play.

4. Parentheses are used to enclose numerals or letters in a list included in the body of a text: 
•	A book proposal prepared for a potential publisher should include at least (1) a description of the content, (2) an identification of the intended readership, (3) an explanation of why the book will be necessary or valuable and (4) a comparison with any competing books already in print.

SQUARE BRACKETS

Square brackets ([ ]), or ‘closed brackets’, are used to clarify a point in a direct quote: 
•	“These two nations [Russia and America] seem to sway the destinies of half the globe.”
It is possible to use square brackets to add words to a quote, or to replace words without changing the original meaning of the sentence:
•	“I'm sure it [was] always like that.”
There is one more use of square brackets in quotations. When the quote contains a mistake, and you want to make it clear to your reader that the mistake is contained in the original, you use the Latin word sic enclosed in square brackets immediately after the mistake. The mistake can be of any kind: a spelling mistake, a grammatical error, the use of the wrong word, etc. Here are some examples: 
•	We have not recieved [sic] your letter. 
•	The number of students are [sic] larger than usual. 
•	The last dinosaurs died about 60,000 years ago [sic]. 
Note: Sic is used only to draw attention to an error. Alternatively, when correction is desired, it is possible to insert inside brackets (after sic) the word recte, meaning "rightly" in Latin, followed by the correct word:
•	"An Iraqi battalion has consumed [sic, recte assumed] control of the former American military base, and our forces are now about 40 minutes outside the city." (George W. Bush)
A bracketed ellipsis [...] is often used to indicate deleted material. According to The Chicago Manual of Style regular ellipsis indicate long pauses, while bracketed ellipsis show that something was omitted:
•	“The chocolate-coated kippers were ... interesting. [...] I can’t wait to see what she puts in the omelets.”
Occasionally square brackets are used for citing references.
•	Several earlier investigators [5, 11, 23] reported just such a correlation.

QUOTATION MARKS

The use of quotation marks (AmE), or inverted commas (BrE), is slightly complicated by the fact that there are two types of them: single quotes (‘’) and double quotes (“”). 
British usage in the past usually preferred single quotes for ordinary use. Double quotation marks were used for titles or quotations within quotation marks. But double quotes are now increasingly common. American usage has always preferred double quotes. Thus, the exact rules for quotation marks vary greatly even from country to country within the English-speaking world.
Whether you use double or single quotation marks is up to you. Whatever you do you must be consistent. For example, use single quotation marks to embrace single letters and words, while double quotation marks to enclose sentences:
•	The letter ‘o’ is one of the most used in the English language. 
•	The word ‘quiz’ was first used in the nineteenth century.
•	One critic ended his glowing review with this superlative: "It is simply the best film ever made about potato farming."

Quotation Marks and Direct Quotations
The main use of quotation marks is to enclose a direct quotation – i.e. an exact repetition of someone's exact words. Here is an example: 
•	*Thomas Edison declared that "Genius was one per cent inspiration and ninety-nine per cent perspiration." (Correct: According to Thomas Edison, "Genius is one per cent inspiration and ninety-nine per cent perspiration.")
When punctuating a quotation, it is essential to discover if it goes without interruption or with interruption. When the quoted text is interrupted, such as with the phrase she said, a closing quotation mark is used before the interruption, and an opening quotation mark after. Commas are also used before and after the interruption:
•	"Of all the poems in his latest book," she said, "this is my favorite.”
Periods and commas can go either inside or outside quotation marks. There are two schools of thought on this, which R.L.Trask calls the logical view and the conventional view [Trask 1997].
The logical view holds that the only punctuation marks which should be placed inside the quotation marks are those that form part of the quotation, while all others should be placed outside:
•	"The only thing we have to fear", said Franklin Roosevelt "is fear itself." 
The conventional view, in contrast, insists on placing punctuation marks inside a closing quote. Here is a sentence punctuated according to the conventional view: 
•	"The only thing we have to fear," said Franklin Roosevelt, "is fear itself." 
You may follow your own preference; however, the conventional view is more popular. 
Semi-colons and colons always come outside quotation marks.
•	George claimed, "I have twenty points"; Bill said he had only twelve.
•	He clearly states his opinion in the article “Of Human Bondage”: he believes that television has enslaved and diminished an entire generation.
Question marks and exclamation marks are placed inside or outside quoted material depending on whether they apply to the whole sentence or just the quoted part:
•	Did he say, “Good morning, Dave”? (the entire sentence is a question)
•	I can't believe you said, "Boiled potatoes are better than hash browns"! (the entire sentence is an exclamation)
•	"Why are you so late?" demanded Dad. (only the quotation is a question)
•	Julie exclaimed, "I won the lottery!" (only the quotation is an exclamation)
When you have a question outside quoted material AND inside quoted material, use only one question mark and place it inside the quotation mark:
•	Did she say, "May I go?"
A quotation is set off by quotation marks and nothing else:
•	*President Nixon declared: "I am not a crook." (Correct: President Nixon declared "I am not a crook.")
Nevertheless, a comma before an opening quote is not a mistake:
•	President Nixon declared, "I am not a crook." 
The quotation inside the quote marks begins with a capital letter if it is a complete sentence: 
•	According to Thomas Edison, "Genius is one per cent inspiration and ninety-nine per cent perspiration." 
•	Thomas Edison declared that genius was "one per cent inspiration and ninety-nine per cent perspiration". 
When you cite a quotation that contains another quotation, set off the internal quotation with the other type of quotation marks:
•	She asked, "How many of you have read 'The Lady of Shalott'?"
•	K.Fuchs wrote in his book Kazan Tatars in Statistics and Ethnography: "The common Tatar people gave me the following funny definition of a philosopher: ‘A Philosopher is a Tatar drinking wine with a Russian’."

Quotation Marks and Titles
A couple of generations ago, it was the custom to enclose all titles in quotation marks. This usage, however, has now largely disappeared. Write titles of books, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, films, plays, long poems, long musical works, and television and radio programmes in italics. Use quotation marks to set off certain titles, usually those of minor or short works – essays, short stories, short poems, songs, articles in periodicals, chapters, etc. 
•	Once when I was ill, my father read me a story called “The Happy Flower,” which was later made into a film entitled Flower Child, starring Tiny Tim.
•	My favorite Star Trek episode is "The Trouble with Tribbles."

Quotation Marks and Words
We use quotation marks when we are talking about certain words. Consider the following examples: 
•	Men are physically stronger than women. 
•	‘Men' is an irregular plural. 
You are only likely to need this device when you are writing about language, then you should certainly use it:
•	*A typical young speaker in Reading has done, not did, and usually also does for do and dos for does. (Correct: A typical young speaker in Reading has ‘done', not ‘did', and usually also ‘does' for ‘do' and ‘dos' for ‘does'.)
•	*The word processor came into use around 1910. (Correct: The word ‘processor' came into use around 1910.)
Sometimes, you will use quotation marks to set off words specifically referred to as terms, though some publishers prefer italics.
•	I know you like the word “unique,” but do you really have to use it ten times in one essay?
Note: The so-called scare quotes are placed around a word or phrase to indicate that it should not be taken literally or automatically accepted as true. Quite often scare quotes are used to express irony or sarcasm. In speech they are sometimes gestured using air quotes (virtual quotation marks by fingers):
•	My brother claimed he was too “busy” to help me.

PART 2. PRACTICE SECTION

COMPREHENSION EXERCISES

Exercise 1. Rewrite the sentences using capitalisation where necessary.
1.	Hitler’s invasion of poland led to the tragedy of the second world war.
2.	The chinese communist party branded mr. gorbachev ‘a traitor to socialism’.
3.	On london’s stock exchange, 18.5 million shares were traded yesterday.
4.	The queen is meeting the prime minister today.
5.	She was crowned queen in 1953.
6.	Let me introduce professor stephen hawking and jane hopkins, a professor of sociology.
7.	She teaches at the university of connecticut, one of the most popular universities in this part of the USA.
8.	In standard american, ‘gotten’ is used as a past participle of ‘get’.
9.	The lecture at the royal academy of arts begins at 9.30, your majesty.
10.	Don’t forget to buy a pack of kleenex in the shop.

Exercise 2. Put full stops where necessary, explain your choice. Sometimes there is more than one possibility.
TVA, IBM, IQ, NY, PG, HQ, Fri, hp, ft, LA, per cap, per an, MO.

Exercise 3. Rewrite the following sentences so that question marks (along with other punctuation marks) are used correctly.
1.	In Homer's Odyssey, Ulysses took seven years to travel from Troy to Ithaca. Or was it eight years. Or more?
2.	Ulysses must have wondered whether he would ever make it home?

Exercise 4. Rewrite the following sentences so that exclamation points (along with other punctuation marks) are used correctly.
1.	As the firefighters moved their equipment into place, the police shouted, "Move back!."
2.	A child's cries could be heard from above: "Help me. Help."!
3.	When the child was rescued, the crowd called "Hooray."
4.	The rescue was the most exciting event of the day!
5.	Let me tell you about it. No I wouldn’t listen.

Exercise 5.  Read and translate the sentences explaining the use of bracketing commas in clauses with who, which, and where:
1.	She says it’s Charlotte’s fault, which is rubbish, and that she blames her.
2.	I discussed it with my brother, who is a lawyer.
3.	In 1963 we moved to Boston, where my grandparents lived.
4.	This is Gabriel, who I told you about.
5.	His best movie, which won several awards, was about the life of Gandhi.
6.	We were led to the dining room, where lunch was being served.
7.	Bogard starred in the film Casablanca, which was made in 1942.
8.	Alison Jones and her husband David, who live in Hartlepool, are celebrating their golden anniversary.
9.	He showed me round the town, which was very kind of him.
10.	Bradford, where Bren comes from, has a lot of good restaurants.
11.	I recently talked to Michael Hall, who lectures in music at the university.
12.	The house, which was completed in 1856, was famous for its huge marble staircase.

Exercise 6. Translate the sentences considering the difference in the use of the bracketing commas before who, which, that and where in English and the corresponding words (который, кто, где) in Russian:
1.	Девушка, которая стоит там, у остановки – моя подруга. 
2.	Они так и не выяснили, кто был убийцей.
3.	Дома, которые имеют вид на озеро, стоят дороже.
4.	Ты не знаешь, кто закрыл все двери?
5.	Она стояла именно там, где сейчас стоишь ты.
6.	Это история, которая понравится любому ребенку.
7.	Теперь они проезжали мимо домов, которые описывал Том.
8.	Ты нашел книгу, которую искал?
9.	Интересно, где она находит такие идеи?
10.	Ты не знаешь, где мои очки?
11.	Другие люди, которые живут в доме, добры к нам.
12.	Это одна из немногих стран, где движение левостороннее.
13.	Он был человеком, которого все считали вполне надежным.
14.	Не подскажете, где находится Баркер Драйв (Barker Drive)?
15.	Мы трудоустраиваем только тех, у кого есть навыки работы с компьютером.
16.	Стрэдфорд – это город, где родился Шекспир.
17.	Я не знаю, кого пригласить на вечеринку.
18.	Она из тех людей, которые любят быть в центре внимания.
19.	Вот то место, где я спрятал ключ.
20.	Интересно, куда они собираются нас отвезти.
Exercise 7. Insert commas before who, which, and where if necessary. Explain your choice:
1.	I’ve been meaning to ask you where you get your hair cut.
2.	One of the boys kept laughing which annoyed Jane intensely.
3.	That bar on Milton Street which by the way is very nice is owned by Trevor’s brother. 
4.	We got the same answer from everyone who we spoke to.
5.	He doesn’t know who to vote for at the elections.
6.	They are easy to find if you know where to look.
7.	Will the pupil who threw that paper dart please stand up now.
8.	She wondered who had sent her the flowers.
9.	A skilled workforce is essential which is why our training programme is so important.
10.	She lived in Rome for a couple of years where she taught English.
11.	It was a crisis for which she was totally unprepared.
12.	Anyway, that evening which I’ll tell you more about later I ended up staying at Rachel’s place.
13.	And then Mary who we had been talking about earlier walked in.
14.	Did you see the letter which came today?
15.	You are free to go where you want.
16.	Mrs. Smith who has a lot of teaching experience at junior level will be joining the school in September.
17.	I think Bramwell was the one who first suggested the idea.
18.	The answer, therefore, is to maintain a diet which is as balanced and healthy as possible.
19.	I’ve been thinking about those questions which you asked me last week.
20.	I want you to meet my friend Diana who I think I mentioned in my last letter.
21.	The people who phoned yesterday want to buy the house.
22.	These are principles which we all believe in.
23.	I like to have him next to me where I can keep an eye on him.
24.	Jim was the only one of his platoon who had not been taken prisoner.
25.	He rang James who was a good friend as well as the family GP.
26.	The 6.45 train which went from Winchester to Southampton was already full of commuters when Rale boarded it with fifteen minutes to go before its departure.
27.	 I don’t like men who wear perfume.
28.	 I saw Tom who I had met the previous week.
29.	 Japan is the country which has always interested me.
30.	 My younger sister who is painfully shy rarely speaks to anyone.

Exercise 8. The following sentences have been taken from The Catcher in the Rye by J.D.Salinger. Analyze the use of comma with anyway, though, I guess and naturally. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1.	Anyway, what a gorgeous job for a guy around sixty-five years old.
2.	He always looked good when he was finished fixing himself up, but he was a secret slob anyway, if you knew him the way I did.
3.	I’m not too crazy about sick people, anyway.
4.	Even though it was so late, old Ernie’s was jam-packed.
5.	She was a pretty nice girl, though.
6.	I kept wishing, though, that he’d continue the conversation in the morning, instead of now, but he was hot.
7.	Not too much, I guess.
8.	I guess he was still thinking.
9.	It was dark as hell in the foyer, naturally, and naturally I couldn’t turn on any lights. 
10.	I don’t mind getting hit so much – although I’m not crazy about it, naturally – but what scares me most in a first fight is the guy’s face.

Exercise 9. The following sentences have been taken from The Catcher in the Rye by J.D.Salinger. Insert commas with anyway, though, I guess and naturally where necessary. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1.	I was out of breath anyway so I quit horsing around.
2.	It was only about two inches away, but he missed anyway.
3.	But listen now anyway.
4.	I’m pretty healthy though.
5.	The funny thing is though I was sort of thinking of something else while I shot the bull.
6.	The more I thought about it though the more depressed and screwed up about it I got.
7.	“I guess I will,” I said.
8.	I sat there I guess for about an hour.
9.	I tried to get up naturally but it was some job getting up, in a place like that.
10.	I knew where her school was naturally because I went there myself when I was a kid.

Exercise 10. Insert commas where necessary. Explain your choice.
1.	They advertise in about a thousand magazines always showing some hot-shot guy on a horse jumping over a fence. (Salinger)
2.	Francis taking off his hat and putting down his paper was not consciously pleased with the scene; he was not that reflective. (Cheever)
3.	Down the mountain he swung matching his speed against the contours of a slope that had been formed in the first ice age seeking with ardor some simplicity of feeling and circumstance. (Cheever)
4.	I wrapped the fresh fish in three layers of newspaper but my van still smelled like trout foe the next week.
5.	She invited him to her party and he accepted.
6.	As soon as I got it I turned around and started running down the other side of the hill toward old Spencer’s house. (Salinger)
7.	While I was waiting around for Phoebe in the museum right inside the doors and all these two little kids came up to me and asked me if I knew where the mummies were. (Salinger)
8.	With the exception of Jonathan Edwards Britain had no chance of striking gold on track and field.
9.	Grandfather remained alone in his house which he ceased to maintain spending more and more time in his garden shed which he had fitted out for his hobbies of model making and amateur chemistry. (Swift)
10.	I still feel love and I still say love though it’s not what men want not from me. (Weldon)

Exercise 11. Insert commas with linking words and phrases where necessary. Explain your choice.
1.	Fortunately however there are exceptions to the rule in every profession.
2.	On the contrary I didn’t mean to offend you.
3.	Even so she shouldn’t have said that. To tell the truth I was surprised.
4.	On the whole the results of the experiment are not bad.
5.	We always help our friends whereas you seldom do this.
6.	This term according to Mr James’s theory is quite ambiguous.
7.	He generally speaking was the only man who managed to survive.
8.	First of all we were planning to visit Greece not Turkey.
9.	Sue looks after her children which as far as I am concerned is not easy.
10.	Actually they were both wrong and to make matters worse started to exchange words. 

Exercise 12. Many books have subtitles, but often they're not recognized. See how many subtitles of these famous books and poems you know. Who are the authors of these books? Complete the gaps.

	Title		Subtitle	
1.	‘Prometheus Unbound’	A.	‘A Pure Woman Faithfully Presented’	
2.	‘Roots’	B.	‘The Saga of an American Family’	
3.	‘Tess of the d'Urbervilles’	C.	‘A Novel Without a Hero’	
4.	‘Typee’	D.	‘A Lyrical Drama in Four Acts’	
5.	‘Vanity Fair’	E.	‘A Peep at Polynesian Life’ 	

1.	__________: __________ is a novel by William Makepeace Thackeray, satirizing society in early 19th-century Britain.
2.	__________: __________ is American writer Herman Melville's first book, partly based on his actual experiences.
3.	__________: __________ is a novel written by Alex Haley that opened up the minds of Americans of all colors and faiths to one of the darkest and most painful parts of America’s past.
4.	__________: __________ is a novel by Thomas Hardy, set in impoverished rural Wessex during the Long Depression.
5.	__________: __________ is a four-act play by Percy Bysshe Shelley, concerned with the torments of the Greek mythological figure Prometheus and his suffering at the hands of Zeus.

Exercise 13. Put a colon where necessary.
1.	It is time for the baby's birthday party a white cake, strawberry ice cream, and a bottle of champagne saved from another party. (Didion)
2.	I want an assistant who can input data, write reports, and complete tax forms.
3.	Merdine assigned chores to the children wash the dog, sweep the porch, empty the litter box, and clean the garage.
4.	A boy can learn a lot from dog obedience, loyalty, and the importance of turning around three times before lying down. (Benchley)
5.	Africa is facing a terrifying problem perpetual drought.
6.	There was only one possible explanation the train had never arrived.
7.	If a waitress wants to make a good impression on her customers and boss, she should dress appropriately, calculate the bill carefully, and be courteous to customers. 
8.	James C. Dobson’s advice on marriage was “Don't marry the person you think you can live with; marry only the individual you think you can't live without."

Exercise 14. Put a semicolon where necessary:
1.	Tolkien published The Hobbit in 1937 the first volume of The Lord of the Rings followed in 1954.
2.	I am afraid of flying on an airplane thus, I have never traveled anywhere that I could not get to by car or train.
3.	Some of the most well-known cities in the United States include Chicago, Illinois New York City, New York Las Vegas, Nevada and Los Angeles, California.
4.	I went to the swimming pool I was told it was closed for routine maintenance.
5.	The bag that was found on the hill contained a paperback novel a lunchbox, empty except for some crumbs a green fold-up umbrella and a map, which had notes made on it with a pen.
6.	Examples of familiar sequences are: one, two, and three a, b, and c and first, second, and third.
7.	The storm last night was the worst ever for this area however, classes were not canceled the next day at any of the schools.
8.	I like to eat crocodiles however, I don't like to be eaten by them.
9.	The ingredients that we need to pick up at the store are eggs, flour, and sugar for the cake honey, brown sugar, and vinegar for the ham salt, butter, and pepper for the corn and frozen fruit, whipped cream, mayonnaise, and coconut for the salad.
10.	Walt Disney World, a massive cluster of theme parks near Orlando, is one of the world's leading tourist attractions Universal Studios, a combination theme park and film and television production facility, is also near Orlando and other attractions draw millions of tourists to Florida yearly.

Exercise 15. Explain the usage of the full stop, colon and semicolon.
1.	I have the answer. Mike's solution doesn't work.
2.	I have the answer; Mike's solution doesn't work.
3.	I have the answer: Mike's solution doesn't work.

Exercise 16. The following sentences have been taken from written papers (interpretations, essays, tests etc.) of Russian students studying English as a foreign language. Find a mistake/ mistakes in each sentence and correct it/ them.
1.	I think, he is just a smart aleck.
2.	I see, that he wanted to produce an effect on you.
3.	Everything, that happened – is not my fault.
4.	I heard, that he is going to be promoted soon.
5.	He tried to prove, that his parents were not guilty.
6.	Will you sometimes look up, when you are in Atlanta?
7.	You often eat more, than you really need.
8.	Two children, sitting in the back row, were discussing something in subdued voices.
9.	He stood up and said impudently: „I don’t want to be hard on you, but you’ll have to do what I say!”
10.	He was out of his wits, when he wasn’t let in.
11.	First, the narrator describes, how the students prepare for exams.
12.	On the one hand it gives a humorous slant and on the other – shows, that for students exam period is hard time.
13.	Gordon describes ironically the students, who complete their tests in an hour and a half.
14.	The author in bright colours describes us students. Their fears connected with written and oral parts of the exam. And the relief they feel after this ordeal.
15.	Then, the author tells us about other types of students.
16.	Others on the contrary have a mind to continue to live in a fool’s paradise.

Exercise 17. Use appropriate punctuation marks in the dialogues.
1.	- Andrew can you answer the question
- Sorry I didn’t quite catch that	
2.	- I think the word was borrowed from French
- I am not sure that’s right but let’s check	
3.	- Surely you don’t think that the experiment is useful
- Actually I expect that it’s useless	
4.	- You look happy today
- Pardon
- I said that you look happy	
5.	- Excuse me can you tell me the way to the post office
- Take the first sorry the second turning on the left
- Sorry
- The second turning on your left	

Exercise 18. Put a dash where necessary. Explain your choice.
1.	I was thinking about writing a what time did you say the movie started?
2.	"There are little railways going up those hills, little cogwheel things that  The door opened, and Mrs. Harris appeared. (Jerome K. Jerome)
3.	As they walked, he smiled to himself to think that all he knew of her except that he loved her was her name, Norah Greenway. (O Henry)
4.	As I ran, I saw My God! no one was following.
5.	"But I But you said" stammered Fiona.
6.	Sam even though she fears clinics terribly went to the doctor with me today.
7.	After the flight, Tina looked and she'd be the first to admit it like an unmade bed.
8.	In the great empires of antiquity Egypt, Babylon, Assyria, Persia splendid though they were, freedom was unknown.
9.	Our three children Moe, Larry, and Curly have decided to enter show business.
10.	In horses, the mane grows from the poll the area between the ears down to the withers the area between the shoulder blades and includes the forelock, the lock of hair that grows from or falls on the forehead.

Exercise 19. Explain why the following words are hyphenated (apply an appropriate rule in each case). State the parts of speech of the hyphenated words:
three-day conference
low-lying islands
full-scale investigation
three-year expansion
self-directed learning
in-class activity
hour-long flight
un-uniformed	re-cover (recover)
Shakespeare-like
un-American
do-it-yourselfer
bluish-green
five-year-old boy
sentence-by-sentence analysis
ex-wife 	

Exercise 20. Put parentheses where necessary. Tick the sentences where it is possible to use dashes instead of parentheses.
1.	Some of the local store owners Mr. Kwan and Ms. Lawson, for example insisted that the street should be widened.
2.	She married 1910 an extremely eligible young man she had met while vacationing in Florida the summer before.
3.	He managed to save almost three thousand dollars $2840.50.
4.	It appears that 33% of girls aged 1618 smoke regularly, but that only 28% of boys in this age bracket do so. These figures are provided by a recent newspaper survey.
5.	The wedding reception what a fiasco! ended abruptly.
6.	Optimistic thinking people and I count myself among them always seem to produce positive results in any situation.
7.	Steve Case AOL's former CEO resigned from the Time-Warner board of directors in 2005.
8.	Forty-three years after his death, Robert Frost do you remember him? remains America’s favorite poet.
9.	Today, I will 1 drive to the mall, 2 buy some Christmas presents, and 3 spend a few hours looking for my car in the parking lot.
10.	They finally said why couldn't they have admitted it earlier? that she had been there.

Exercise 21. Put quotation marks wherever necessary and underline words where italics are needed.
1.	Mary is trying hard in school this term, her father said. 
2.	No, the taxi driver said curtly, I cannot get you to the airport in fifteen minutes.
3.	I believe, Jack remarked, that the best time of year to visit Europe is in the spring. At least that's what I read in a book entitled Guide to Europe.
4.	She asked, Is Time a magazine you read regularly?
5.	When did Roosevelt say, We have nothing to fear but fear itself?
6.	It seems to me that hip and cool are words that are going out of style.
7.	Yesterday, John said, This afternoon I'll bring back your book Conflict in the Middle East; however, he did not return it.
8.	Can you believe, Dot asked me, that it has been almost five years since we've seen each other?
9.	Certainly, Mr. Martin said, I shall explain the whole situation to him. I know that he will understand.
10.	My French professor told me that my accent is abominable.

Exercise 22. Put quotation marks, question marks, exclamatory marks and commas where necessary.
1.	What's the matter he asked. 
2.	Toan's English professor asked him what was wrong.
3.	She cried Help
4.	Do you know Billy Collins's poem On Turning Ten she asked.
5.	It's really very funny she added.
6.	What is the main idea in Louise Erdrich's poem Dear John Wayne asked Professor Christie.
7.	I don't care she said what you think about it
8.	So what else is new Raoul asked. Have you begun your studies in radiology yet
9.	Who said To be or not to be asked Professor Villa.
10.	Do you agree with the saying All's fair in love and war

REVISION EXERCISES

Exercise 23. Insert commas where necessary.
1.	Well as I say the minister has resigned although I should point out that there is technically nothing illegal about what he did. (3)
2.	But it happens it’s always happened and I’m sure it’ll continue to happen. (2)
3.	When the war broke out he must have been about 18 years of age and like most boys of his age he received the news with a kind of naive enthusiasm born out of youthful ignorance and inexperience. (3)
4.	Tim said “Erm I think there’s been some sort of misunderstanding gentlemen.” (3)
5.	Having just spent three weeks of my life sitting on an uncomfortable saddle pounding the roads of France I am in no fit state to do anything except sit and write which suits me fine. (3)
6.	Where the money is coming from I don’t know. I even don’t know where all these rumors are coming from! (1)
7.	Let me know if you find out anything new about this family. Should you hear anything let me know. (1) 
8.	If I had known about it I would warn you in time. Had I known I would have protested strongly. (2)
9.	If you are unable to attend the meeting because of illness please note that a medical certificate must be produced signed by your doctor proving your state of health. (3)
10.	Even with the field of mainstream sports peak ages can vary widely according to Jan Hodge a sports statistician. (3)

Exercise 24. Complete the sentences using appropriate punctuation with linking words and phrases. Use the words given in brackets in a suitable grammatical form. Write only one sentence in each case. 
1.	On the one hand … (exciting) on the other … (difficult).
2.	Unfortunately as a result … (leave alone).
3.	Firstly … (help) secondly … (phone) finally … (arrive).
4.	By the way … (see the film).
5.	He was an ordinary student at school whereas … (businessman).
6.	The crisis affected the majority of companies and consequently … (lose one’s job).
7.	The election according to some politicians … (a hot one).
8.	To start with I think you should … (clearly).
9.	But nevertheless our team … (win).
10.	You won’t pass no matter how … (try).

Exercise 25. Justify the use of colons and semicolons in the following sentences.
1.	Good wages, nice little flat, men all over the place: wonderful dinners, diamonds. (Weldon)
2.	Do it: play your part. (Swift)
3.	On such occasions she would always remind herself: he doesn’t even  bother to see the children, let alone me. (Tremain)
4.	Every animal had to put up with a strict body-search before being released; some were even doused in tups of water which smelt of tar. (Barnes)
5.	Behind him, stacked in columns, rose cigarettes; tipped, plain; above, cigars, below, loose tobacco. (Swift)
6.	Perhaps the book provided a gloomy note, but only by accident; it was the ordinary Library binding. (Mansfield)
7.	When I remember those horrible brooding years, my body shudders; an immense discouragement, a brooding weariness, envelop me. (Aldington)
8.	By eight they would have changed into school clothes: uncomfortable figures in uniform. (Swift)
9.	He began courting her again, taking her from one night club to another because she wanted to avoid big places, and for a while he believed their marriage might still be salvaged: she herself might be salvaged, he might be, and their children might be. (Saroyan)
10.	It was not his limitation at all to be unable to escape the past; it was perhaps his limitation that he had escaped it so successfully. (Cheever)

Exercise 26. Put a colon or a semicolon in places marked with a dot (•):
1.	There was a strict discipline on the Ark• that’s the first point to make. (Barnes)
2.	I put this next suggestion to you rather tentatively• I feel I have to voice it though. (Barnes)
3.	She remembered her children left on their own in London• she raced to answer the unforeseen but now obvious emergency. (Tremain)
4.	Here at home, on the other hand, he had the mahogany bookcase filled with English classics, all of them bound in leather• Dickens, Shakespeare and the poet he had taken to his own heart• William Wordsworth. (Moggach)
5.	I was immediately struck by the number of young Englishmen dotted about• all well dressed, all looking a little hungry, and all talking in low, earnest voices to solid and prosperous Americans. I was sure they were selling something• bonds of incurrence or automobiles. (Fitzgerald)
6.	The most remarkable thing about her was her voice, high, metallic, and without inflection • it fell on the ear with a hard monotony, irritating to the nerves like the pitiless clamour of the pneumatic drill. (Maugham)
7.	After tea there was a customer or so – small purchases• some muslin and buckram, dress-protectors, tape, and a pair of Lisle hose. (Wells)
8.	Street boys whistled, a little dog barked• people passed by, walking so lightly, so swiftly, they looked as though they wanted to break into a run. (Mansfield)
9.	His liking for Mozart’s music brought him sometimes to an opera or a concert• these were the only dissipations of his life. (Joyce)
10.	There were Americans, sailors from the ships in port, enlisted men off the gunboats, somberly drunk, and soldiers from the regiments, white and black, quartered on the island• there were Japanese, walking in twos and threes• Hawaiians, Chinese in long robes, and Filipinos in preposterous hats. (Maugham)

Exercise 27. Give the meaning of hyphenated compounds in the following sentences studying the context of the compound.
1. It was dawn now on Long Island and we went about opening the rest of the windows downstairs, filling the house with gray-turning, gold-turning light. (Fitzgerald)
2. Now he was a sturdy straw-haired man of thirty with a rather hard mouth and a supercilious manner. (Fitzgerald)
3. As soon as old Maurice opened the doors, he’d see me with the automatic in my hand and he’d start screaming at me, in this high-pitched, yellow-belly voice, to leave me alone. (Salinger)
4. They [performances] were a kind of emotional magic-lantern show, an attempt to enliven a very unconvincing life-performance with dramatic images (Aldington)
5. “How awful!” said Minnie in a horror-struck whisper, and looking up at last. (Wells)
6. At the heart of this fruit-ripe world Minnie waited. (Huxley)
7. He looks in good shape for a forty-year-old man. (Boyd)
8. Soon the capacious marble-floored entrance hall begins to fill up as more and more people arrive for their classes. I hear the pop-pop of a motor bike in the small courtyard at the front. (Boyd)
9. The pounding of the cylinders increased: ta-pocketa-pocketa-pocketa-pocketa. (Thurber)
10. We got up a petition and explained certain things to him about moulting and what-have-you. (Barnes)

Exercise 28. Comment on the author’s use of the hyphen in the following situations. What are the meanings of hyphen in each case? Translate the sentences into Russian. 
1. The other girl, Daisy, made an attempt to rise […] then she laughed […] and I laughed too […].
“I’m p-paralyzed with happiness.” (Fitzgerald)
2. “Idiotic!” said George, banging the end of his walking-stick on the ground; “ab-so-lute-ly idiotic.” (Aldington)
3. To his great surprise Kismine began to weep.
“Yes – th-that’s the – the whole t-trouble. I grew qu-quite attached to some of them. So did Jasmine, but she kept inv-viting them anyway. I couldn’t understand it.” (Fitzgerald)
4. ‘He’s a charlatan,’ – said the little man vehemently, ‘a-a-a most undesirable person. A-a-a eunuch!’ (Aldington)
5. The shock that followed this declaration found voice in a sustained “Ah-h-h!” as the door of the coupe swung slowly open. (Fitzgerald)
6. He then sat down in a mood of bitter cynicism and composed two others, giving the public what the public was supposed to want – jolly generals, cheerio subalterns, comic hero-Tommies, topping life for real men, rotten old Huns, and how-sorry-we-are-to-leave-the-dear-old-trenches. (Aldington)
7. I was rather pleased by this air of bravura, a sort of dammee-I-will-NOT-be-good determination. (Aldington)

Exercise 29. The following extracts have been taken from modern literary works by various writers. Justify the use of dashes in the following sentences. What effects do writers achieve by using this punctuation mark? 
1.	There was always the sunshine. It has shone then – June, 1949 – through the windows of the nursing home. (Swift)
2.	His family were enormously wealthy – even in college his freedom with money was a matter of reproach – but now he’d left Chicago and come East in a fashion that rather took your breath away. (Priestley)
3.	If you think I am being contentious, it is probably because your species – I hope you don’t mind my saying this – is so hopelessly dogmatic. (Barnes)
4.	Time enough not to hurry, to dress neatly, to gather his briefcase – the leather had become soft and creased as a glove – to kiss her – her cheek was there to be kissed – to drive to Briar Street in time to collect and mark up the papers, to arrange the shelves, to open at seven-thirty. (Swift)
5.	 Novels – as opposed to lyrics, or mathematics – are essentially a middle-aged form. (Byatt)
6.	The first hour of queuing, if it’s a popular production – say a Hopkins Lear or a new Hamlet – Piggot-Smith or Roger Rees – the queue will start to collect while it’s still dark. (Gardam)
7.	On the counter in front, and beneath, behind sliding glass doors, were the bars and sticks, chews and tubes, sherbet dabs and banana-splits – the things the kids chose coming at four – wrapped in sickly colour. (Swift)
8.	And then – the identification was made – the wry smile touched her lips. (Swift)
9.	He has a variety of cancer – I’m not sure which – and has only about two years to live. (Mackenzie)
10.	Yet they have everything – everyone – they need. (Tremain)

Exercise 30. Read, translate and explain why the following words, phrases, parts of sentences, separate sentences and even longer extracts were put in round brackets. Could the brackets be substituted by dashes or commas? Will this substitution change the effect produced on the reader? Summarize the overall effect that parentheses (brackets) as a punctuation mark can produce in narration.
1.	The nationalist party is trailing (behind) the liberals in the opinion polls.
2.	A war, a welfare state, the rise (and fall) of the meritocracy, European unity, little England, equality of opportunity, comprehensive schooling, women’s liberation, the death of the individual, the poverty of liberalism. (Byatt)
3.	Hurry up, or we’ll miss (=arrive too late for) the train.
4.	Any person (and that is most persons) unaware of the results of the Great Push for Civilization might have been surprised by Henson’s behavior. (Aldington)
5.	They started off OK: no, he’d never had any trouble from the shoe- stealers before, no, he didn’t know who they were and no, he wasn’t very happy at school (only one lie there). (Hornby)
6.	Well, first hey had to let the smell out (and there weren’t too many volunteers for winch-work); then six or eight of the less fastidious birds would flutter cautiously around the hatch for a minute or so before diving in. (Barnes)
7.	The kind of death they were trying not to think about was the quiet, sad, real kind, not the noisy, who-cares kind. (People thought that kids couldn’t tell the difference, but they could, of course.) (Hornby)
8.	He liked Lindsey’s mum. He liked Lindsey, too. Even his mum liked Lindsey, although she said nasty things about her every now and again. (He never stuck up for her. In fact, he stored up stupid things that Lindsey said or did and told his mum about them when he got home; it was easier that way). Everyone was OK, really. (Hornby)
9.	The landlord filled a large glass mug from a cask and stood it on the bar.
‘Can you give me anything to eat?’
‘Yes, sir.’
(It should be explained to those who are unacquainted with small country pubs that a landlord is required by law to furnish food with his drinks, if called upon, but for some reason is generally strangely reluctant about it. Henson knew from experience what was coming.) (Aldington)

Exercise 31. Choose and explain your choice:
1.	a) At university she often read: English short stories, novels and poems.
b) At university she often read English short stories, novels and poems.
c) At university she often read English, short stories, novels and poems.
	
2.	a) Since writing is a human activity it presupposes the involvement of human beings.
b) Since – writing is a human activity – it presupposes the involvement of human beings.
c) Since writing is a human activity, it presupposes the involvement of human beings.
	
3.	a) The question then arises; is the association between a pair and a pattern arbitrary?
b) The question then arises: is the association between a pair and a pattern arbitrary?
c) The question then arises, is the association between a pair and a pattern arbitrary.
	
4.	a) In the middle of his second year at school, a quiet, handsome boy named Percy, had been put in John’s form.
b) In the middle of his second year at school, a quiet, handsome boy named Percy had been put in John’s form.
c) In the middle of his second year, at school, a quiet, handsome boy named Percy had been put in John’s form.
	
5.	a) People who work in television programming, for example, tend to be young.
b) People, who work in television programming, for example, tend to be young.
c) People who work in television programming for example, tend to be young.
	
6.	a) As you know, Professor Byatt who has been associated with the club for 15 years is retiring at the end of the term.
b) As you know Professor Byatt, who has been associated with the club for 15 years, is retiring at the end of the term.
c) As you know, Professor Byatt, who has been associated with the club for 15 years, is retiring at the end of the term.
	
7.	a) Other guests stood up, too – Mr and Mrs Green, old Colonel Tindall, and three teenage girls.
b) Other guests stood up, too: Mr and Mrs Green, old Colonel Tindall and three teenage girls.
c) Other guests stood up, too; Mr and Mrs Green, old Colonel Tindall and three teenage girls.
	
8.	a) By end of the Civil War he was a twenty-five-year-old-Colonel.
b) By end of the Civil War he was a twenty-five-year-old Colonel.
c) By end of the Civil War he was a twenty five year old Colonel.	

Exercise 32. Study the following model and then do Tasks 1, 2, 3 and 4. 
Model: There are no punctuation marks in this text. Firstly, read the text carefully. Secondly, single out the sentences. Thirdly, find the Direct Speech. Fourthly, put punctuation marks where necessary.
Marx once received a letter from his bank manager who had written to remind him of an overdraft the letter ended with the standard phrase if I can be of any service to you do not hesitate to call on me Marx immediately put pen to paper dear sir he wrote the best thing you can do to be of service to me is to steal some money from the account of one of your richer clients and credit it to mine 

Possible answer: Marx once received a letter from his bank manager, who had written to remind him of an overdraft. The letter ended with the standard phrase: "If I can be of any service to you, do not hesitate to call on me." Marx immediately put pen to paper:
"Dear Sir," he wrote,
"The best thing you can do to be of service to me is to steal some money from the account of one of your richer clients and credit it to mine!"

Task 1 
Getty once received a request from a magazine for a short article explaining his success a two-hundred-pound cheque was enclosed the multi-millionaire obligingly wrote get up early work late strike oil

Task 2 
a certain Mrs Smythe who was notorious for courting celebrities sent Bernard Shaw an invitation reading Lady Smythe will be at home on Tuesday between four and six o'clock Shaw returned the card with the following annotation Mr Bernard Shaw likewise

Task 3 
Lady MP once rebuked Churchill for being intoxicated at a dinner party sir she said you are drunk and you madam ugly Churchill retorted but I shall be sober tomorrow

Task 4 
in conversation with Churchill Lady Astor expounded on the subject of women's rights Churchill opposed her on this and other causes she held dear in some exasperation Lady Astor said Winston if I were married to you I'd put poison in your coffee Churchill responded and if you were my wife I'd drink it 

Exercise 33. Read the following extracts from literary works of several writers. Comment on the use of punctuation in each extract. Pay special attention to the amount of punctuation marks and the ways this may influence the reader. 
Text 1. 
Joe runs in wearing his tracksuit, which he takes off now. His rugger kit is clean. The new boots.
Joe Hello, Mum.
Hapgood Good luck, darling. This is Mr Kerner – Joseph. Another Joe.
Joe Hello, sir.
Kerner Hello. How are you?
Joe All rights’a, thankyous’a. (to Hapgood) Will you be here after?
Hapgood Yes, see you later.
She has the tracksuit. Perhaps the top half goes round her neck. Joe runs off. Pause.
Kerner Very nice. Very Ebglish. (Pause) Of course, he is half English, one forgets that. Well … good.
Hapgood Do you want to stay for tea? They lay it on for parents.
Kerner Better not, I think.
Hapgood Oh, Joe.
She breaks down. He holds her, awkwardly.
Prosty, Josef. [I’m sorry, Josef.]
Kerner Da nyet – vyet u menya byl vybar, Lilichka. [No, no. I had a choice, too, Lilichka.]
Hapgood Nyet tagda u tibya nye bylo vybora – [You had no choice then.]
Kerner Da – nu ya pashol … ya napishu kagda dayedu … [Yes, I’d better go. I’ll write when I get there.] (He kisses her and starts to leave.)
Hapgood How can you go? How can you?
She turns away. The game starts. Referee’s whistle, the kick.
After a few moments Hapgood collects herself and takes notice of the rugby. 
When the game starts Kerner’s interest is snagged. He stops and looks at the game.
Come on, St Christopher’s – We can win this one! Get those tackles in! (She turns round and finds that Kerner is still there. She turns back to the game and comes alive.) Shove! – heel! – well heeled! – well out! – move it – move it, Hapgood! – that’s good – that’s better! (From the play Hapgood by T.Stoppard)

Text 2. 
“Help, help!” cried Piglet, “a Heffalump, a Horrible Heffalump!” and he scampered off as hard as he could, still crying out, “Help, help, a Herrible Hoffalump! Hoff, Hoff, a Hellible Horralump! Holl, Holl, a Hoffable Hellerump!” And he didn’t stop crying and scampering until he got to Christopher Robin’s house.
“Whatever’s the matter, Piglet?” said Christopher Robin, who was just getting up.
“Heff,” said Piglet, breathing so hard that he could hardly speak, “a Hell – a Heff – a Heffalump.”
“Where?”
“Up there,” said Piglet, waving his paw.
“What did it look like?”
“Like – like –- It had the biggest head you ever saw, Christopher Robin. A great enormous thing, like – like nothing. A huge big – well, like a – I don’t know – like an enormous big nothing. Like a jar”.
“Well,” said  Christopher Robin, putting on his shoes, “I shall go and look at it. Come on.” (From Winnie-the-Pooh by A.A.Milne)

Text 3. 
Old pain, old terror, old exasperations crowd upon me – nights spent in shivering anguish shoveling cold mud under shell-fire; interminable marches over pave roads through incredibly insipid country, marches when the over-weight of a soldier’s burden became an exasperation, a mad obsession; wet night watches in splashy trenches, mud soaking legs and feet to a king of numb pain – and always the fierce whinw of bullets, the nerve-racking detonation of shells; exhausting, unrefreshing sleep in frosty dugouts on verminous sacks; food muddy and impure. And always the menace – annihilation. Every second it was possible: how did we not go mad? We were mad, utterly insane. (From the short story Farewell to Memories by R. Aldington)

Text 4. 
We stamped in under the archway up the steps and sat down in a small round room with a stained glass window in the back with strips of brown sticky paper stuck all over it in a lattice in case of bombs. It was a very stuffy room and there were only two tables in it. One was a big round table with a dirty cloth on it and the other was a little table with a clean cloth on it and a notice saying ‘Reserved’. We sat down at the dirty table. Helen and Cissie looked at each other and Cissie Sniggered. (From A Long Way from Verona by J. Gardam)

Text 5. 
“Mr. Vinsons,” I said. He meant all the Mr. Vinsons, not all the Mr. Vineses. I shouldn’t have interrupted him, though.
“All right – the Mr. Vinsons. Once you get past all the Mr. Vinsons, you are going to start getting closer and closer – that is, if you want to, and if you look for it and wait for it – to the kind of information that will be very, very dear to your heart. Among other things, you’ll find that you’re not the first person who was ever confused and frightened and even sickened by human behavior. You’re by no means alone on that score, you’ll be excited and stimulated to know. Many, many men have been just as troubled morally and spiritually as you are right now. Happily, some of them kept records of their troubles. You’ll learn from them – if you want to. Just as someday, if you have something to offer, someonewill learn something from you. It’s a beautiful reciprocal arrangement. And it’s education. It’s history. It’s poetry.” He stopped and took a big drink out of his highball. Then he started again. Boy, he was really hot. (From Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger)

Exercise 34. Read the poem by T.S.Eliot and analyze the punctuation used in it comparing with the punctuation suggested by a Russian translator (see Appendix 1). Did you manage to understand the message of the poem?

“The Naming of Cats”
The naming of cats is a difficult matter,
It isn’t just one of your holiday games;
You may think at first I’m as mad as a hatter
When I tell you, a cat must have THREE DIFFERENT NAMES.
First of all, there’s the name that the family use daily,
Such as Peter, Augustus, Alonzo or James,
Such as Victor or Jonathan, George or Bill Bailey –
All of them sensible everyday names.
There are fancier names if you think they sound sweeter,
Some for the gentlemen, some for the dames:
Such as Plato, Admetus, Electra, Demeter –
But all of them sensible everyday names.
But I tell you, a cat needs a name that’s particular,
A name that’s peculiar, and more dignified,
Else how can he keep up his tail perpendicular,
Or spread out his whiskers, or cherish his pride?
Of names of this kind, I can give you a quorum,
Such as Munkustrap, Quaxo, or Coricopat,
Such as Bombalurina, or else Jellylorum –
Names that never belong to more than one cat.
But above and beyond there’s still one name left over,
And that is the name that you never will guess;
The name that no human research can discover –
But THE CAT HIMSELF KNOWS, and will never confess.
When you notice a cat in profound meditation,
The reason, I tell you, is always the same:
His mind is engaged in a rapt contemplation
Of the thought, of the thought, of the thought of his name:
His ineffable effable
Effanineffable
Deep and inscrutable singular Name.

Exercise 35. Read the following extracts and pick out any features that are typical to different functional styles. Insert necessary punctuation marks in the parts that are given in bold type. Which style does each extract belong to? 

Text 1. 
The Lakoffians make a virtue of concentrating on fully established and conventionalized metaphors. However it can be argued that if one wants to get to the heart of metaphor as an interpretive mechanism one must look at freshly coined examples. These are the only ones all of whose properties are currently available for study: conventionalized metaphors have irrecoverably lost at least some of their original properties. Complex literary metaphors are unsuitable for initial study for different reasons one must understand the simple before tackling the complex. Easily comprehended fresh metaphors are abundantly available in popular literature, the daily press, on TV and so on.
Several stages can be recognized in the life history of a durable metaphor. When it is first coined the only way to interpret it is to employ one’s innate metaphorical interpretive strategy which is subject to a wide range of contextual and communicative constraints. Once a metaphor takes hold in a speech community and gets repeated sufficiently often, its character changes. First its meaning becomes circumscribed relative to the freshly coined metaphor becoming more determinate second it begins to be laid down as an item in the mental lexicon so that in time it can be retrieved in the same way as a literal expression third it begins a process of semantic drift, which can weaken or obscure its metaphorical origins. At the beginning of its life, even if it is being laid down as an item in the lexicon, speakers are very conscious of its status as a metaphor, and they can recreate easily the metaphorical path of its derivation. As time passes however the sense of the expression’s metaphorical nature fades and eventually disappears although it can be brought to life by means of Lakoffian elaborations etc. Once that happens, the expression is no different from a literal expression, and only etymologists and historians of the language can recreate the path of derivation. At some point along this path of change, the expression acquires a capability to act as a literal basis for further metaphorical extensions, which is not possible for a fresh metaphor.
How does this impinge on the Lakoff account of metaphor? Let us look at some relevant examples. Take the metaphor mentioned by Kovecses 2002 8, SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS ARE PLANTS. Kovecses gives the following expressions not in the original order that are said to exemplify this metaphor.

Text 2.
UK sees the return of the big freeze
Despite freezing fog, ice and snow in many parts of Britain, transport network appears to be coping better than last week.
Britain continued to shiver today with freezing fog ice and snow affecting many parts of the country but there was relief for businesses and retailers as road and rail networks appeared to be coping better after last week's chaos.
It was also back to the classroom for thousands of children whose schools were closed although a small minority remained shut in Scotland today. The Department for Education said 50 schools in Yorkshire and Humberside were also closed. Hundreds more schools could close in the next few days after reporting problems with their heating systems.
Edinburgh and Inverness airports were closed because of snow. Others remained open but cancellations and delays continued as arctic conditions affected much of northern Europe. Flights were delayed at Southampton airport owing to the adverse weather and at Liverpool airport owing to freezing fog.
Some flights at Heathrow were being delayed because of the disruption at other airports but Gatwick which was badly affected last week was operating normally.
Lorry drivers are being allowed to drive their vehicles for longer after the government temporarily relaxed their working conditions to help supplies get through.
The warmer weekend temperatures were soon forgotten as forecasters warned temperatures may not rise much above zero in the next couple of days. They were as low as -18C 0.4F in Yorkshire this morning and snow is expected across much of Scotland northern England and Northern Ireland today. That means some disruption to rail services.
At least 10 people have died in the recent weather, in road accidents or, in the case of two pensioners in Cumbria, after falling in their gardens.
Two cyclists died in Cumbria on the same stretch of road where two young women died after their car collided with a Royal Mail van.
In north Lincolnshire, a 55-year-old motorist died after he was in collision with a tanker. Police said it was too early to say if the weather played a part in that accident on the A15 on Saturday but they urged witnesses to contact them.
Edinburgh airport shut at around 10am as a fresh band of snow moved south while Glasgow airport shut its runway at 9.30am. Dundee Inverness Kirkwall and Campbeltown airports were also closed.
The Met Office issued severe weather warnings for most of Scotland today alerting drivers to the risk of heavy snow and icy roads. In the Grampian region roads were shut because of snow. Police in Tayside said all roads were passable with extreme care, while motorways in central Scotland are down to single lanes. The poor weather also caused disruption on the railways, with the ScotRail website warning of delays and cancellations. Last night temperatures dropped to -13.4C 7.9F at Eskdalemuir in Dumfries and Galloway and forecasters said most places would struggle to reach above zero today. But the snow will ease off later.
A man died in Darlington while trying to clear snow outside his home. Peter Andrews 64 was discovered at yesterday morning. A police spokeswoman said it appeared he had died while shovelling snow.
Among those killed as a result of the weather two men died on the M62 in Humberside in freezing conditions on Friday.
Police said treacherous road conditions on the A595 in Carlisle contributed to the collision in which Grace Simpson and Jessica Lakin both 19 died after their car hit a post van.
A couch driver has been arrested on suspicion of causing death by dangerous driving after two cyclists died in a collision on the same stretch of road on Sunday.
A driver who stopped his car to help a stranded motorist in the Yorkshire Dales was killed when he was struck by another vehicle.
A pensioner's body has been found in a caravan park in Cleethorpes police said. The man who was believed to be in his 70s was discovered by staff at the Thorpe Park on Sunday morning.
A Humberside police spokesman said inquiries were under way to formally identify the victim. The caravan park which is in the Humberston area is closed for the winter. The police spokesman said the man's death was not being treated as suspicious.
The AA said it had attended more than 10,800 breakdowns by 11am today, with calls coming in at just under 3,000 a hour - roughly double the usual rate. A spokesman Gavin Hill-Smith said Extremely cold weather across the country coinciding with Monday morning one of the busiest times of the week has made for a very busy morning - even busier than last Monday when we had the widespread snow. Problems reported included vehicles failing to start and frozen door locks.
Text 3.
AP Annual Luncheon,
Washington, April, 2008
Good afternoon. I know I kept a lot of you guys busy this weekend with the comments I made last week. Some of you might even be a little bitter about that.
As I said yesterday I regret some of the words I chose partly because the way that these remarks have been interpreted have offended some people and partly because they have served as one more distraction from the critical debate that we must have in this election season.
I'm a person of deep faith and my religion has sustained me through a lot in my life. I even gave a speech on faith before I ever started running for President where I said that Democrats, make a mistake when we fail to acknowledge the power of faith in people's lives. I also represent a state with a large number of hunters and sportsmen, and I understand how important these traditions are to families in Illinois and all across America. And contrary to what my poor word choices may have implied or my opponents have suggested I've never believed that these traditions or people's faith has anything to do with how much money they have.
But I will never walk away from the larger point that I was trying to make. For the last several decades, people in small towns and cities and rural areas all across this country have seen globalization change the rules of the game on them. When I began my career as an organizer on the South Side of Chicago I saw what happens when the local steel mill shuts its doors and moves overseas. You don't just lose the jobs in the mill, you start losing jobs and businesses throughout the community. The streets are emptier. The schools suffer.
I saw it during my campaign for the Senate in Illinois when I'd talk to union guys who had worked at the local Maytag plant for twenty thirty years before being laid off at fifty-five years old when it picked up and moved to Mexico and they had no idea what they're going to do without the paycheck or the pension that they counted on. One man didn't even know if he'd be able to afford the liver transplant his son needed now that his health care was gone.
I've heard these stories almost every day during this campaign whether it was in Iowa or Ohio or Pennsylvania. And the people I've met have also told me that every year in every election politicians come to their towns and they tell them what they want to hear and they make big promises and then they go back to Washington when the campaign's over, and nothing changes. There's no plan to address the downside of globalization. We don't do anything about the skyrocketing cost of health care or college or those disappearing pensions. Instead of fighting to replace jobs that aren't coming back, Washington ends up fighting over the latest distraction of the week.
And after years and years and years of this a lot of people in this country have become cynical about what government can do to improve their lives. They are angry and frustrated with their leaders for not listening to them for not fighting for them for not always telling them the truth. And yes they are bitter about that.
Now, Senator McCain and the Republicans in Washington are already looking ahead to the fall and have decided that they plan on using these comments to argue that I'm out of touch with what's going on in the lives of working Americans. I don't blame them for this that's the nature of our political culture and if I had to carry the banner for eight years of George Bush's failures I'd be looking for something else to talk about too.
But I will say this. If John McCain wants to turn this election into a contest about which party is out of touch with the struggles and the hopes of working America, that's a debate I'm happy to have. In fact I think that's a debate we need to have. Because I believe that the real insult to the millions of hard-working Americans out there would be a continuation of the economic agenda that has dominated Washington for far too long.
John McCain is an American hero and a worthy opponent, but he's proven time and time again that he just doesn't understand this. It took him three tries in seven days just to figure out that the home foreclosure crisis was an actual problem. He's had a front row seat to the last eight years of disastrous policies that have widened the income gap and saddled our children with debt and now he's promising four more years of the very same thing.
He's promising to make permanent the Bush tax breaks for the wealthiest few who didn't need them and didn't ask for them tax breaks that are so irresponsible that John McCain himself once said they offended his conscience.
He's promising four more years of trade deals that don't have a single safeguard for American workers that don't help American workers compete and win in a global economy.
He's promising four more years of an Administration that will push for the privatization of Social Security a plan that would gamble away people's retirement on the stock market a plan that was already rejected by Democrats and Republicans under George Bush.
He's promising four more years of policies that won't guarantee health insurance for working Americans that won't bring down the rising cost of college tuition that won't do a thing for the Americans who are living in those communities where the jobs have left and the factories have shut their doors.
And yet, despite all this, the other side is still betting that the American people won't notice that John McCain is running for George Bush's third term. They think that they'll forget about all that's happened in the last eight years that they'll be tricked into believing that it's either me or our party is the one that's out of touch with what's going on in their lives.
Well I'm making a different bet. I'm betting on the American people.
The people I've met during this campaign know that government cannot solve all of our problems, and they don't expect it to. They don't want our tax dollars wasted on programs that don't work or perks for special interests who don't work for us. They understand that we cannot stop every job from going overseas or build a wall around our economy and they know that we shouldn't.
But they believe it's finally time that we make health care affordable and available for every single American that we bring down costs for workers and for businesses that we cut premiums and stop insurance companies from denying people care or coverage who need it most.
They believe it's time we provided real relief to the victims of this housing crisis that we help families refinance their mortgage so they can stay in their homes that we start giving tax relief to the people who actually need it middle class families and seniors and struggling homeowners.
They believe that we can and should make the global economy work for working Americans that we might not be able to stop every job from going overseas but we certainly can stop giving tax breaks to companies who send them their and start giving tax breaks to companies who create good jobs right here in America. We can invest in the types of renewable energy that won't just reduce our dependence on oil and save our planet, but create up to five million new jobs that can't be outsourced.
They believe we can train our workers for those new jobs and keep the most productive workforce the most competitive workforce in the world if we fix our public education system by investing in what works and finding out what doesn't if we invest in early childhood education and finally make college affordable for everyone who wants to go if we stop talking about how great our teachers are and start rewarding them for their greatness.
They believe that if you work your entire life you deserve to retire with dignity and respect which means a pension you can count on and Social Security that's always there.
This is what the people I've met believe about the country they love. It doesn't matter if they're Democrats or Republicans; whether they're from the smallest towns or the biggest cities; whether they hunt or they don't; whether they go to church, or temple, or mosque, or not. We may come from different places and have different stories, but we share common hopes, and one very American dream.
That is the dream I am running to help restore in this election. If I get the chance, that is what I'll be talking about from now until November. That is the choice that I'll offer the American people four more years of what we had for the last eight or fundamental change in Washington.
People may be bitter about their leaders and the state of our politics but beneath that they are hopeful about what's possible in America. That's why they leave their homes on their day off or their jobs after a long day of work and travel sometimes for miles sometimes in the bitter cold to attend a rally or a town hall meeting held by Senator Clinton or Senator McCain or myself. Because they believe that we can change things. Because they believe in that dream.
I know something about that dream. I wasn't born into a lot of money. I was raised by a single mother with the help my grandparents who grew up in small-town Kansas went to school on the GI Bill and bought their home through an FHA loan. My mother had to use food stamps at one point but she still made sure that through scholarships, I got a chance to go to some of the best schools around which helped me get into some of the best colleges around which gave me loans that Michelle and I just finished paying not all that many years ago.
In other words my story is a quintessentially American story. It's the same story that has made this country a beacon for the world-a story of struggle and sacrifice on the part of my forebearers and a story overcoming great odds. I carry that story with me each and every day. It's why I wake up every day and do this, and it's why I continue to hold such hope for the future of a country where the dreams of its people have always been possible. Thank you. (http://obamaspeeches.com/)
Text 4.
To	Ian Greenberg Controller	
From	Tuf Cowan Cattle Manager TC	
Date	June 28 2010	
Subject	Classification of livestock on the balance sheet	

I have received your request to value our livestock assets for the balance sheet for the year ending June 30, 2010. Based on available commodity prices I can easily determine the dollar value of the livestock. However I am unable to determine whether the following livestock categories should be shown as current items (inventory) or as long-term items
1.	Bulls kept for breeding purposes average useful life of ten years.
2.	Steers held for approximately 15 months from birth then sold for slaughter.
3.	Heifers most kept for breeding purposes average useful life of five years then sold for slaughter.
4.	Calves less than one year old certain percentage sold as veal others used for breeding or grazed and sold later for slaughter.
Would you please assist me by specifying how I should classify each of these categories

Text 5.
305 International House
University of Utah
Salt Lake City
June 29 2009
My dear Mummy and Daddy
Many thanks for your letter which arrived this morning. Sorry I have not been writing as regularly as I should.
The fact is I have started cooking my own food here. It is much cheaper than the Hostel food and sometimes even better. There is a kitchenette next to my room. Breakfast porridge, eggs and coffee can be prepared in about 10 minutes and there is always some bread and cheese and fruit to go with it. Lunch takes about the same time. And the most it takes to prepare a good dinner is less than an hour. And part of the time you can be watching TV in the next room. So it is no trouble at all. Moreover I have teamed up with a friend of mine so we share the work which makes it much easier.
Do send some recipes – for frying fish, cutlets and so on. We can get real good minced meat here and all the spices and very fine rice. So we can make anything we want.
There are lots of Indians at the International House this year. The latest to come is one from Bangalore who is working for his Doctorate in Geophysics. During the Xmas New Year break we were invited by several Indian families here. So we went out and ate a lot. And we called all the Indian families over. I cooked Kheema for forty people. And it was perfectly edible. You don’t believe it Well
How is everybody at home Ask Tina to write to me unless she is too busy cutting up corpses in the Medical College. 
Your Affectionate son 
Krishna

Exercise 36. The following extract has been taken from The Queen and I by famous British writer Sue Townsend. Read and correct the language, spelling and punctuation mistakes being made by Prince Charles’ sons.

Punctuation
It was Charles’s turn to choose the station, so everyone in the cell was listening to Radio Four. Brian Redhead was talking to the ex-Governor of the Bank of England, who had resigned the day before. Nobody had yet been found to take his place. Mr Redhead queried, ‘So, Sir, you’re telling me that, in your capacity as governor of the Bank of England, even you, in your exalted position, did not know the terms of this Japanese loan? I find that hard to believe.’
‘So do I,’ said the ex-Governor, bitterly. ‘Why do you think I resigned?’
‘So how will the loan be repaid?, asked Mr Redhead.
‘It won’t,’ said the Governor, ‘the vaults are empty. In order to fund his lunatic schemes Mr Barker has successfully robbed the Bank of England.’
The cell door opened and Mr Pike held out letters, saying, ‘Fat Oswald, from your mother. Moses, one from your wife, and one from your girlfriend.’
To Lee he said, ;Nothing, as usual. To Charles he said, ‘Teck, one, from a moron, judging by the writing on the envelope.’
Charles opened the envelope, inside were two letters.

Dear Dad,
I am alrite are you alrite
I know you are not on your holiday I seen Darrun Christmas an he tole me you in the nick
Harris as wripped up all the plants in the gardin
Love Harry. 7 years.

Dear Dad,
Mum told us a lie that you was on holiday in Scottland. Are video has been stolen and also so has the candlesticks what belonged to that King George what reined years ago. Mr Christmas knows the bloke what took them. He said he is going to beat up this bloke and get are candlesticks back.
Are school is gettin a new roof soon. Jack Barker sent a letter to Misses Stricklan and she tole us in assembly yestardy.
Aunty Anne as got a horse called Gilbert. It lives in her back garden in a stabel. It is pink. The stabel not the horse. Will you send us some money from prison we have not got none.
Love from William.
P.S. Please write back soon.

Charles read the two letters with horror. It wasn’t only his sons’ abysmal use of English language, the misspellings, the contempt shown for the rules of punctuation, the appalling handwriting. It was the contents of the letters. When he got out of prison he would kill Harris. And why hadn’t Diana mentioned the burglary?

СПИСОК ИСПОЛЬЗОВАННОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ

Cambridge Grammar of English. A Comprehensive Guide. Spoken and Written English. Grammar and Usage/ R.Carter, M.McCarthy. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. – 973 p.
Fromkin V. An Introduction to Language/ V.Fromkin, R.Rodman, N.Hyams. – Boston: Thomas Wadsworth, 2007. – 587 p.
Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English/ D.Biber, S.Johansson, G.Leech. – Harlow: Longman, 2000. – 1204 p.
O'Conner P. Woe is I: The Grammarphobe's Guide to Better English in Plain English/ P.O’Conner. – New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. – 288 p.
Sklar L.N. Modern English Punctuation/ L.N.Sklar. – Moscow: Higher School Publishing House, 1972. – 108p.
Straus J. The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation/ J.Straus. – Mill Valley: Bare Bones Training and Consulting Company, 2001. – 68 p.
Trask L. The Penguin Guide to Punctuation/ L.Trask. – London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1997. – 166 p.
Vince M. Advanced English Practice. – Macmillan, 2003. – 326 p.
Александрова О.В. Проблемы экспрессивного синтаксиса. На материале английского языка/О.В.Александрова. – М.: Либроком, 2009. – 216с.
Арапиева Л.У. Теория и практика системы знаков препинания в современном английском языке: дис. … канд. филол. наук/ Л.У.Арапиева. – Москва, 1985. – 177 с.
Баранова Л.Л. Онтология английской письменной речи: Учеб.-метод. пособие к курсу лекций по орфоэпии и орфографии соврем. англ. яз./ Л.Л.Баранова. – М.: Диалог-МГУ, 1998. – 246 с.
Жималенкова Т.М., Мыльцева Н.А. Universal Reference Grammar/ Универсальный справочник по грамматике английского языка. – М.: ГЛОССА, 1995. – 224 с.
Истрин В.А. Возникновение и развитие письма/ В.А.Истрин. – М.: Наука, 1965. – 594 с.
Кобрина Н.А. Английская пунктуация/ Н.А.Кобрина, Л.В. Малаховский. – М.: Изд-во лит-ры на иностр. языках, 1961. – 118 с.
Орехова Н.Н. Пунктуация и письмо (на материале русского и английского языка)/ Н.Н.Орехова. – Ижевск, 2000. – 216 c.

ЛЕКСИКОГРАФИЧЕСКИЕ ИСТОЧНИКИ

Crystal D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Second Edition/ D.Crystal. – New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. – 480 p.
Crystal D. The Penguin Dictionary of Language. Second Edition/ D.Crystal. – Penguin Books, 1999. – 391 p.
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. – Longman, 2003.– 1949p. 
Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. - Macmillan, 2006. – 1692 p.
Punctuation// Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. – Centre p. 36-37.
Punctuation. Appendix 4// Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. – P. 1523-1525.

ЛИТЕРАТУРНЫЕ ИСТОЧНИКИ

Contemporary British Stories. – Oxford: Perspective Publications Ltd, 1994. – 222 p.
Didion J. We tell ourselves stories in order to live: collected nonfiction/ J.Didion. – New York: Everyman's Library, 2006. – 1160 p.
Jerome K. J. Three Men on the Bummel/ K.J.Jerome. – Rockville: Arc Manor LLC, 2009. – 168 p.
Neuhaus J. Manly meals and mom's home cooking: cookbooks and gender in modern America/ J.Neuhaus. – London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003. – 352 p.
Henry O. Whirligigs/ O.Henry – Teddington: Echo Library, 2007. – 160 p.
Priestly J.B. Angel Pavement/ J.B.Priestly. – М.: Изд-во Прогресс, 1974. – 504 с.
Swift G. Waterland. – London: Picador, 2008. – 355 p.
Townsend S. The Queen and I. – London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2002. – 271 p.
Американский рассказ ХХ века. Сборник. – На англ. яз. – Составитель Н.А.Самуэльян. – М.: «Менеджер», 1996. – 304 с.
Олдингтон Р. Рассказы. Сборник. – На англ. яз. – М.: ОАО Изд-во «Радуга», 2002. – 272 с. 
Олдингтон Р. Смерть героя. – На англ. яз. – М.: Высшая школа, 1985. – 350 с.
Олдингтон Р. Смерть героя. Роман. Рассказы. Пер. с англ. – М.: Правда, 1988. – 608 с.
Фицджеральд Ф.С. Великий Гэтсби. Ночь нежна: Романы; Рассказы: Пер. с англ. – М.: НФ «Пушкинская библиотека», ООО «Изд-во АСТ», 2003. – 824, [8] с. 
Фицджеральд Ф.С. Великий Гэтсби: Роман. – М.: Высш. шк., 1984. – 142 с. Текст: англ. 
Фицджеральд Ф.С. Избранные произведения. В 3 т. – Т.3. – М.: Художественная литература, 1977. – 445 с

ЭЛЕКТРОННЫЕ РЕСУРСЫ

Famous Quotes at BrainyQuote [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www.brainyquote.com/, свободный. – Проверено 26.11.2011.
Grammar, Punctuation, and Capitalization – a comprehensive online guide by NASA [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www.sti.nasa.gov/publish/sp7084.pdf, свободный. – Проверено 26.11.2011.
Best speeches of Barack Obama [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://obamaspeeches.com/, свободный. – Проверено 26.11.2011.
Peck F. Punctuation [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/punct.html, свободный. – Проверено 26.11.2011.
Punctuation – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punctuation, свободный. Проверено 26.11.2011.
Quotations & Correct Punctuationhttp [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://plato.acadiau.ca/dagora/tutorial/qpunct.html, свободный. – Проверено 26.11.2011.
The Chicago Manual of Style [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org, свободный. – Проверено 26.11.2011.
The Quotations Page [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www.quotationspage.com/, свободный. – Проверено 26.11.2011.
Zimmer B. The [Sic]ing of the President [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/002755.html, свободный. – Проверено 26.11.2011.
BBC one [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcone/, свободный. – Проверено 26.11.2011.
CNN [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: www.cnn.com, свободный. – Проверено 26.11.2011.

APPENDIX 1

Exercise 28. The following translations of the extracts have been suggested by professional translators. Compare them with those previously given by you. Is the meaning of the hyphen preserved in all translations? Why? Point out the combinations that cannot be translated into Russian with the hyphen.
1. Другая – это была Дэзи – сделала попытку встать […] тут же засмеялась […] и я тоже засмеялся […].
– На м-меня от радости столбняк нашел. [Ф., с. 25]
2. – Какое идиотство! – Джордж даже стукнул тростью оземь. – Пол-ней-шее идиотство! [О., с. 169]
3. К его великому удивлению Кисмина расплакалась.
– О-о-ой, они были такие ми-и-илые. Я к ним так привя-а-азывалась. И Жасмина тоже, а она все равно приглашала. Вот уж этого я не понимаю, и все. [Фиц-д., с. 162-263]
4. – Шарлатан и пренеприятнейший субъект, - сказал филантроп с горячностью. – Евнух! [О., с. 586]
5. Это заявление положительно оглушило всех. Сдавленное «о-ох!» пронеслось над дорогой. Тут дверца машины начала медленно отворяться. [Ф., с. 61]
6. Тогда, поддавшись холодному озлоблению, он сел и написал две вещицы в другом роде, и там уже было все, что, по словам редакторов, нужно читающей публике: весельчаки-генералы, бодряки-капралы, комики-герои из рядовых, распрекрасная жизнь для настоящих мужчин, проклятые гунны и «как нам жаль покидать родные окопы». Даже идиот, думалось Камберленду, должен понять, что это пародия. [О., с. 433]
7. Но в общем мне понравилась его бравада – он как бы заявлял всему миру и совершенно откровенно: вот и не желаю, черт побери, быть паинькой, да и все! [О., с. 567]

Exercise 34.
Как окрестить кота 
Кота окрестить – непростая затея.
И вы осознаете вашу тщету
(я в здравом уме!), но она тем сложнее,
Что ЦЕЛЫХ ТРИ ИМЕНИ нужно коту.
Ну, с именем первым, что для обихода,
Такими, как Кристофер, Джим или Джем,
А также Пушок или попросту Шкода,
Не будет, конечно, серьезных проблем.
А если такое покажется грубо,
Есть Фауст, Макбет, Калиостро, Голем,
Ахилл или, скажем, Электра, Гекуба –
Тут тоже не будет особых проблем.
Но имя второе должно быть значительным,
Какого не взять на помойке любой –
Чтоб кот ощущать мог себя исключительным,
Топорщить усы и держать хвост трубой.
Манкастро, Куансу и Бомбарипицца,
Джелорум – пожалуйста, целый букет!
Но только такое тут имя годится,
Какого нигде больше в мире и нет.
Однако есть имя, двух первых помимо –
Лишь КОТ ЕГО ЗНАЕТ, а нам не дано.
И как бы нам ни было невыносимо,
Его не откроет он нам все равно.
И если в раздумьи застали кота вы,
Что сел, словно Будда, у всех на виду,
То не сомневайтесь (и будете правы!) –
Он думает, думает, думает, ду…
Об Имени
Мыслимо-мысле-немыслемом,
Что писано было коту на роду.
Перевод С.Степанова

APPENDIX 2

Punctuation marks
	Uses	Examples 
	
Capital 
letter 
	• for the first letter of a 
sentence 
• for countries, 
nationalities, languages, 
religions, names of 
people, places, events, 
organizations, trademarks, 
days, months, titles 

• for titles of books, films, etc. 
• for abbreviations 
	Fishing is popular in Britain. 

Portugal, Africa 
Russian 
Moslem, Joanne, John, Dubai, Geneva, the World Trade Fair, Jaguar, the Internet 
Sunday, February, 
Mr. / Mrs. / Ms. / Dr. / Professor 

Silence of the Lambs 

OPEC, AIDS, WWF 
	
Full stop (BrE) / 
period (AmE) 
.	• at the end of a sentence 
• sometimes after an 
abbreviation 
• as the decimal point in 
figures and amounts of 
money. This is usually 
read out as ‘point’ 
• to separate parts of email and web addresses. This 
is read out as ‘dot’ 
	I’m going for a walk. 
Marton Rd. / Mrs. White / 
Dr. Evans 
3.5 million 

http://dictionary.cambridge.org 
	
Question 
mark 
?
	• at the end of a direct question 
• to show doubt (especially with a date) 
	What’s your name? 

Sidney Morgan (1898? – 1972) was little known until after his death. 
	
Exclamation 
mark (BrE) / exclamation point (AmE)
!
	• at the end of a sentence in order to show surprise/ shock, etc. 
• to indicate a loud sound 
	I can’t believe it! 
Ouch! Yes! 

Bang! 
	
Comma
,
	• between items in a list, though it is often omitted before and  
• to separate phrases or clauses 
• to show a pause in a long sentence 

• when you want to add 
extra information 
• before tag questions
• to separate main clauses linked by a conjunction and, as, but, for, or 
• to separate an introductory word 
• before or after ‘he said’ when writing down conversation 
• before a short quotation 
 	I need peas, butter, sugar(,) and eggs. 
They didn’t want to eat before 
I’d arrived, but I was an hour late. 

Worn out after all the excitement of the party, the children soon fell asleep.
Lucy, who I told you about before, will be coming. 
You do love me, don’t you?
We had been looking forward to our summer holidays all year, but unfortunately it rained every day.

By the way, did you see her?

“Come back soon,” she said.

Albert Einstein said, “Imagination is more important than knowledge”. 
	
Apostrophe
,
	• for missing letters 
• for possessives 
• sometimes, with s to form the plural of a letter, a figure or an abbreviation 
Note: 
1. words ending in ‘s’ don’t need another ‘s’ added 
2. It’s can only be an abbreviation for it is or it has. 
3. there is no apostrophe in the possessive pronoun. 	I’ll (I will), it’s (it is), don’t (do not), Noah’s bike
roll your r’s 
during the 1990’s

James’ house 

It’s raining. 

Paris never loses its charm. 
	
Colon
:
	• to introduce a list or a 
quotation in a sentence 
• in the US following the 
greeting in a business 
letter 
• to introduce a quotation, which may be indented
	You need the following: paint, brushes, water, and cloths. 
Dear Customer: 
Dear Mr. Stein: 

As Kenneth Morgan writes:
The truth was, perhaps, that Britain in the years from 1914 to 1983 has not changed all that fundamentally.	
Semi-colon 
;
	• to separate two parts of 
a sentence 
• to exemplify, to qualify, to elaborate a statement 
• to separate two main clauses not joined by a conjunction	I spoke to Linda on Monday; she can’t come to the meeting tomorrow.
The sun was already low in the sky; it would soon be dark. 
	
Hyphen 
-
	• to join two words 
together 
• to form a compound from a prefix and a proper name
• when writing compound numbers between 21 and 99 in words
• sometimes to separate a prefix ending in a vowel from a word beginning with the same vowel
• to show that a word has 
been divided and 
continues on the next line 
	blue-black 
hard-hearted
pro-European

thirty-four

co-operate
pre-eminent

Everyone in the room 
was struck by his air of sad-
ness. 
	
Dash 
–
	• to separate parts of 
sentences

• to indicate that what follows is a summary or conclusion 
• to mean to 
	The car – the one with the broken window – was parked outside our house. 
Men were shouting, women were screaming, children were crying – it was chaos.
The London – Edinburgh train leaves every morning at eight. 	
Quotation 
Marks (AmE)/ 
Inverted 
commas 
(BrE) 
‘ ’
“ ”
	• to enclose words in direct speech 
• to show that someone else originally wrote the words
• around short quotations or sayings
• to set off certain titles 
Note: Single quotation marks are more usual in UK English, and double quotation marks are more usual in US English. 	‘I’m tired,’ she said. 

She had described the school as ‘not attracting the best pupils’. 

Do you know who said: ‘Remember that time is money’?
I was watching ‘The Titanic’.
“Let’s go,” he suggested. 

CONTENTS

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ 	3

PART 1. PUNCTUATION RULES 	4
CAPITAL LETTER 	4
FULL STOP	7
QUESTION MARK 	9
EXCLAMATION MARK 	10
COMMA 	10
COLON 	17
SEMICOLON 	20
APOSTROPHE 	21
HYPHEN 	22
DASH 	25
PARENTHESES	27
SQUARE BRACKETS	28
QUOTATION MARKS 	29

PART 2. PRACTICE SECTION 	33
COMPREHENSION EXERCISES	33
REVISION EXERCISES	43

СПИСОК ИСПОЛЬЗОВАННОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ	64

APPENDIX 1 	67

APPENDIX 2 	69